Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Introduction to the Nature and Geology of Iceland

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover Late Cainozoic Floras of Iceland

Part of the book series: Topics in Geobiology ((TGBI,volume 35))

Abstract

Iceland is an island in the northern North Atlantic halfway between Europe and Greenland/North America and some of its northern parts touch the Arctic Circle. Its position at the conjunction of warm southerly and cold northerly waters and air masses contribute to a particular climate that is unusually mild considering the high latitude of the island. From a biogeographical point of view, Iceland is an important place for both palaeontologists and recent botanists and zoologists. Geologically, Iceland is unique as it is situated at the boundary of the North American and Eurasian plates and is one of the few places on the Earth where sea-floor spreading can be witnessed on land. In this northern part of the Atlantic, the North American continent began to move away from the Eurasian continent by rifting and sea-floor spreading in the early Palaeogene, ca 55 Ma. When sea-floor spreading initiated in this area, a rich flow of magma generated by a mantle plume caused thermal doming of the crust and formed a connection or ‘land bridge’ between the continents known as the Greenland-Scotland Transverse Ridge. Subsequently, the eastern and western limits of this bridge sank as a consequence of continuous rifting and crustal cooling. Today, Iceland is still subaerial because of its position over this very same mantle plume. In the late Cainozoic, rift relocation had an important effect on the geology of Iceland and caused massive erosion and deposition of sediments, some of which contain the plant fossils described in this book. This chapter provides an introduction to the recent climate, weather systems and ocean currents affecting Iceland, and presents the most important details of the island’s living fauna and flora. We also outline the geological background necessary to place the fossiliferous formations in a context.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 259.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abbott, R. J., Smith, L. C., Milne, R. I., Crawford, R. M. M., Wolff, K., & Balfour, J. (2000). Molecular analysis of plant migration and refugia in the Arctic. Science, 289, 1343–1346.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alsos, I. G., Eidesen, P. B., Ehrich, D., Skrede, I., Westergaard, K., Jacobsen, G. H., Landvik, J. Y., Taberlet, P., & Brochmann, C. (2007). Frequent long-distance plant colonization in the changing Arctic. Science, 316, 1606–1609.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous. (1893). Dr. Thoroddsen’s explorations in Iceland. Geographical Journal, 2, 154–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Backman, J. (1979). Pliocene biostratigraphy of the DSDP sites 111 and 116 from the North Atlantic Ocean and the age of the Northern Hemisphere glaciation. Stockholm Contributions in Geology, 32, 115–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beckinsale, R. D., Brooks, C. K., & Rex, D. C. (1970). K-Ar ages for the Tertiary of East Greenland. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark, 20, 27–37.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bjarnason, Á. H. (1983). Íslensk Flóra með litmyndum. Reykjavík: Iðunn. 352 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Björnsson, H., & Pálsson, F. (2008). Icelandic glaciers. Jökull, 58, 365–386.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blöndal, S. (1987). Afforestation and reforestation in Iceland. Arctic and Alpine Research, 19, 526–529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blöndal, S., & Thorsteinsson, I. (1986). Gróðureyðing og endurheimt landgæða. Reykjavík: Námsgagnastofnun. 22 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blytt, A. (1876). Essay on the immmigration of the Norwegian flora during alternating dry and rainy periods. Oslo: Cammermeyer. 89 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brochmann, C., Gabrielsen, T. M., Nordal, I., Landvik, J. Y., & Elven, R. (2003). Glacial survival or tabula rasa? The history of North Atlantic biota revisited. Taxon, 52, 417–450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dickin, A. P., & Dickin, A. P. (1988). The North Atlantic Tertiary province. In J. D. Macdougall (Ed.), Continental flood basalts (pp. 111–149). Dordrecht: Kluwer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Durham, J. W., & MacNeil, F. S. (1967). Cenozoic migration of marine invertebrates through the Bering Strait region. In D. M. Hopkins (Ed.), The Bering land bridge (pp. 326–349). Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Einarsson, E. (1963). The elements and affinities of the Icelandic flora. In Á. Löve & D. Löve (Eds.), North Atlantic biota and their history (pp. 297–302). Oxford: Pergamon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Einarsson, E. (1975). Flora and vegetation. In J. Nordal & V. Kristinsson (Eds.), Iceland 874–1974 (pp. 19–21). Reykjavík: The Central Bank of Iceland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Einarsson, M. (1976). Veðurfar á Íslandi. Reykjavík: Iðunn. 150 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Einarsson, M. Á. (1984). Climate of Iceland. In H. Loon (Ed.), World survey of climatology (Climates of the oceans, Vol. 15, pp. 673–697). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Einarsson, A. (1989). Áttfætlur. In H. Sigurjónsdóttir & A. Einarsson (Eds.), Pöddur (Rit landverndar, Vol. 9, pp. 81–100).

    Google Scholar 

  • Eiríksson, J., Knudsen, K. L., & Vilhjálmsson, M. (1992). An Early Pleistocene Glacial-Interglacial cycle in the Breidavík Group on Tjörnes, Iceland: sedimentary facies, foraminifera, and mollusks. Quaternary Science Reviews, 11, 733–757.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eldholm, O., Myhre, A. M., & Thiede, J. (1994). Cenozoic tectonomagmatic events in the North Atlantic: Potential palaeoenvironmental implications. In M. C. Boulter & H. C. Fisher (Eds.), Cenozoic plants and climates of the Arctic (NATO ASI series, Vol. 127, pp. 35–55). Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Eythorsson, J., & Sigtryggsson, H. (1971). The climate and weather of Iceland. The Zoology of Iceland, 1, 1–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedrich, W. L. (1968). Tertiäre Pflanzen im Basalt von Island. Meddelelser fra Dansk Geologisk Førening, 18, 265–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gabrielsen, T. M., Bachmann, K., Jakobsen, K. S., & Brochmann, C. (1997). Glacial survival does not matter: RAPD phylogeography of Nordic Saxifraga oppositifolia. Molecular Ecology, 6, 831–842.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grímsson, F. (2002). The Hreðavatn Member of the Hreðavatn-Stafholt Formation and its fossil flora. M.Sc. thesis, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark. 229 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grímsson, F. (2007a). Síðmíósen setlög við Hreðavatn. Náttúrufræðingurinn, 75, 21–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grímsson, F. (2007b). The Miocene floras of Iceland. Origin and evolution of fossil floras from north-west and western Iceland, 15–6 Ma. Ph.D. thesis, University of Iceland. 273 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grímsson, F., Denk, T., & Símonarson, L. A. (2007). Middle Miocene floras of Iceland – The early colonization of an island? Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 144, 181–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guðmundsson, F. (1975). Animal life on land. In J. Nordal & V. Kristinsson (Eds.), Iceland 874–1974 (pp. 16–19). Reykjavík: The Central Bank of Iceland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guðmundsson, G., Steingrímsson, S. A., & Helgason, G. V. (1999). Rannsóknarverkefnið botndýr á Íslandsmiðum. Náttúrufræðingurinn, 68, 225–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hallgrímsson, I. (1975). Life in the Icelandic seas. In J. Nordal & V. Kristinsson (Eds.), Iceland 874–1974 (pp. 12–15). Reykjavík: The Central Bank of Iceland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanna, E., Jónsson, T., & Box, J. E. (2004). An analysis of Icelandic climate since the nineteenth century. International Journal of Climatology, 24, 1193–1210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haraldsson, Þ., & Hersteinsson, P. (2004). Hvítabjörn. In P. Hersteinsson (Ed.), Íslensk spendýr (pp. 102–107). Reykjavík: Vaka-Helgafell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harðarson, B. S., Fitton, J. G., Ellam, R. M., & Pringle, M. S. (1997). Rift relocation – A geochemical and geochronological investigation of a palaeo-rift in Northwest Iceland. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 153, 181–196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harðarson, B. S., Fitton, J. G., & Hjartarson, Á. (2008). Tertiary volcanism in Iceland. Jökull, 58, 161–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haug, G. H., & Tiedemann, R. (1998). Effect of the formation of the Isthmus of Panama on Atlantic Ocean thermohaline circulation. Nature, 393, 673–676.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hauksson, E., & Ólafsdóttir, D. (2004). Útselur. In P. Hersteinsson (Ed.), Íslensk spendýr (pp. 132–139). Reykjavík: Vaka-Helgafell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauksson, E., Bogason, V., & Ólafsdóttir, D. (2004). Landselur. In P. Hersteinsson (Ed.), Íslensk spendýr (pp. 116–123). Reykjavík: Vaka-Helgafell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hersteinsson, P. (Ed.). (2004). Íslensk spendýr. Reykjavík: Vaka-Helgafell. 344 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurdle, B. G. (Ed.). (1986). The Nordic seas. New York: Springer. 777 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jóhannesson, H. (1980). Jarðlagaskipan og Þróun rekbelta á Vesturlandi. Náttúrufræðingurinn, 50, 13–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jóhannesson, H., & Sæmundsson, K. (1989). Geological map of Iceland 1:500 000. Bedrock geology. Reykjavík: Icelandic Museum of Natural History and Icelandic Geodetic Survey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jóhannsson, B. (2003). Íslenskir mosar. Skrár og viðbætur. Fjölrit Náttúrufræðistofnunar, 44, 1–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jónsson, G. (1983). Íslenskir fiskar. Reykjavík: Fjölvi. 519 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jónsson, G., & Pálsson, J. (2006). Íslenskir fiskar. Reykjavík: Vaka-Helgafell. 336 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Köppen, W. (1936). Das geographische System der Klimate. In W. Köppen & R. Geiger (Eds.), Handbuch der Klimatologie, Bd. 1, Teil C (pp. 1–44). Berlin: Gebrüder Borntraeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Köppen, W., & Geiger, R. (1928). Klimakarte der Erde, Wall-map 150 cm × 200 cm. Gotha: Verlag Justus Perthes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kottek, M., Grieser, J., Beck, C., Rudolf, B., & Rubel, F. (2006). World map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated. Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 15, 259–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kristinsson, H. (1998). Íslenska plöntuhandbókin. Blómplöntur og byrkningar, (2nd ed.). Reykjavík: Mál og Menning. 304 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kristinsson, H. (2009). Flóra Íslands. http://floraislands.is/index.htm

    Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, H. C. (1978). Offshore continuation of East Greenland dyke swarm and North Atlantic Ocean formation. Nature, 274, 220–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, M. C. (1980). Geological perspectives of the East Greenland continental margin. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark, 29, 77–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Löve, Á. (1945). Íslenzkar Jurtir. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard. 291 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Löve, Á. (1977). Íslenzk Ferðaflóra (Jurtabók AB, 2nd ed.). Reykjavík: Almenna Bókafélagið. 429 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandahl-Barth, G. (1938). Land and freshwater mollusca (The zoology of Iceland 65th ed., Vol. IV, pp. 1–31).

    Google Scholar 

  • Marincovich, L., Jr. (2000). Central American paleogeography controlled Pliocene Arctic Ocean molluscan migration. Geology, 28, 551–554.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nathorst, A. G. (1892). Über den gegenwärtigen Stand unserer Kenntnis der Verbreitung fossiler Glazialpflanzen. Bihang til Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens Handlingar 17, Afd. III, 5, 1–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nilsen, T. H. (1978). Lower Tertiary laterite on the Icelandic-Faeroe Ridge and the Thulean Land Bridge. Nature, 274, 786–788.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norðdahl, H., Ingólfsson, Ó., Pétursson, H. G., & Hallsdóttir, M. (2008). Late Weichselian and Holocene environmental history of Iceland. Jökull, 58, 343–364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen, A. K., Watt, M., Watt, W. S., & Larsen, L. M. (1997). Structure and stratigraphy of the Early Tertiary basalts of the Blosseville Kyst, East Greenland. Journal of the Geological Society, 154, 565–570.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petersen, Æ. (1998). Íslenskir fuglar. Reykjavík: Vaka-Helgafell. 312 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poore, R. H. (2008). Neogene epeirogeny and the Iceland plume. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. 232 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roaldset, E. (1983). Tertiary (Miocene-Pliocene) interbasalt sediments, NW- and W-Iceland. Jökull, 33, 39–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rögnvaldsson, Ó., Crochet, P., & Ólafsson, H. (2004). Mapping of precipitation in Iceland using numerical simulations and statistical modelling. Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 13, 209–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rundgren, M., & Ingólfsson, Ó. (1999). Plant survival in Iceland during periods of glaciation? Journal of Biogeography, 26, 387–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saemundsson, K. (1974). Evolution of the axial rifting zone in Northern Iceland and the Tjörnes Fracture Zone. GSA Bulletin, 85, 495–504.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saemundsson, K. (1979). Outline of the geology of Iceland. Jökull, 29, 7–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sæmundsson, Þ., Guðmundsson, H., Bragadóttir, Þ. V., & Jónsson, H. P. (2009). Hvítabirnir í Skagafirði árið 2008. Náttúrufræðingurinn, 78, 29–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saunders, A. D., Fitton, J. G., Kerr, A. C., Norry, M. J., & Kent, R. W. (1997). The North Atlantic igneous province. In J. J. Mahoney & M.F. Coffin (Eds.), Large igneous provinces: continental, oceanic, and planetary flood volcanism, (AGU Geophysical Monograph 100, pp. 45–93). American Geophysical Union, Washington DC, USA.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Sernander, R. (1896). Några ord med anledning av Gunnar Andersson. Svenska växtvärldens historia. Botaniska Notiser, 114–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sigurðsson, S. (1977). Birki á Íslandi (útbreiðsla og ástand). In H. Ragnarsson, H. Guðmundsson, I. Þorsteinsson, J. Jónsson, S. Blöndal, & S. Sigurðsson (Eds.), Skógarmál (pp. 146–172). Reykjavík: Edda hf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Símonarson, L. A., & Eiríksson, J. (2008). Tjörnes – Pliocene and Pleistocene sediments and faunas. Jökull, 58, 331–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skírnisson, K. (2004a). Brúnrotta. In P. Hersteinsson (Ed.), Íslensk spendýr (pp. 276–281). Reykjavík: Vaka-Helgafell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skírnisson, K. (2004b). Hagamús. In P. Hersteinsson (Ed.), Íslensk spendýr (pp. 262–269). Reykjavík: Vaka-Helgafell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skírnisson, K. (2004c). Húsamús. In P. Hersteinsson (Ed.), Íslensk spendýr (pp. 270–275). Reykjavík: Vaka-Helgafell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skírnisson, K. (2004d). Svartrotta. In P. Hersteinsson (Ed.), Íslensk spendýr (pp. 282–287). Reykjavík: Vaka-Helgafell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skírnisson, K. (2009). Um aldur og ævi hvítabjarna. Náttúrufræðingurinn, 78, 39–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skírnisson, K., Stefánsson, R. A., & Schmalense, M. V. (2004). Minkur. In P. Hersteinsson (Ed.), Íslensk spendýr (pp. 88–97). Reykjavík: Vaka-Helgafell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soper, N. J., Higgins, A. C., Downie, C., Matthews, D. W., & Brown, P. E. (1976). Late Creataceous – Early Tertiary stratigraphy of the Kangerdlugssuaq area, East Greenland and the age of the opening of the Northeast Atlantic. Journal of the Geological Society, 132, 85–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stefánsson, S. (1948). Flóra Íslands (3rd ed.). Reykjavík: Hið Íslenska Náttúrufræðifélag. 407 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stefánsson, U. (1991). Haffræði 1. Reykjavík: Háskólaútgáfa. 413 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stefánsson, U. (1994). Hafstraumar, ástand sjávar og frjósemi íslenskra hafsvæða. Vísindafélag Íslendinga Ráðstefnurit, 4, 39–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinþórsson, S. (1981). Ísland og flekakenningin. In S. Þórarinsson (Ed.), Náttúra Íslands (2nd ed., pp. 29–63). Reykjavík: Almenna Bókafélagið.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinthórsson, S., & Thorarinsson, S. (1997). Iceland. In E. M. Mores & R. W. Fairbridge (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Europe and Asia regional geology (pp. 341–352). London/New York: Chapman.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Talwani, M., & Eldholm, O. (1977). Evolution of the Norwegian-Greenland Sea. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 88, 969–999.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Talwani, M., & Udintsev, G. (1976). Tectonic synthesis. Initial Report of the Deep-sea Drilling Project, 38, 1213–1242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thiede, J., & Eldholm, O. (1983). Speculations about the palaeodepth of the Greenland-Scotland Ridge during late Mesozoic and Cenozoic times. In M. H. P. Bott, S. Saxow, M. Talwani, & J. Thiede (Eds.), Structure and development of the Greenland-Scotland Ridge: New methods and concepts (pp. 445–456). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Thorarinsson, S. (1944). Tefrokronologiska studier på Island. Köbenhavn: Munksgaard, 217 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorarinsson, S. (1963). The Svínafell layers plant-bearing interglacial sediments in Öræfi, southeast Iceland. In Á. Löve & D. Löve (Eds.), North Atlantic biota and their history (pp. 377–389). Oxford: Pergamon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vink, G. E. (1984). A hotspot model for Iceland and the Vøring Plateau. Journal of Geophysical Research, 87, 10677–10688.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vogt, P. R., Johnson, G. L., & Kristjansson, L. (1980). Morphology and magnetic anomalies north of Iceland. In W. Jacoby, A. Björnsson, & D. Möller (Eds.), Iceland – Evolution, active tectonics and structure (Journal of Geophysics-Zeitschrift für Geophysik, Vol. 47, pp. 67–80).

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, G. P. L. (1960). Zeolite zones and dike distribution in relation to the structure of the basalts of eastern Iceland. Journal of Geology, 68, 515–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Þórisson, S. G. (2004). Hreindýr. In P. Hersteinsson (Ed.), Íslensk spendýr (pp. 232–243). Reykjavík: Vaka-Helgafell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Þórðarson, G., & Hauksson, E. (2004). Rostungur. In P. Hersteinsson (Ed.), Íslensk spendýr (pp. 112–115). Reykjavík: Vaka-Helgafell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ægisdóttir, H. H., & Þórhallsdóttir, Þ. E. (2004). Theories on migration and history of the North-Atlantic flora: A review. Jökull, 54, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Palaeobotany, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, Sweden

    Thomas Denk

  2. Department of Palaeontology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria

    Friðgeir Grímsson & Reinhard Zetter

  3. Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland, Sturlugata 7, 101, Reykjavik, Iceland

    Leifur A. Símonarson

Authors
  1. Thomas Denk
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Friðgeir Grímsson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Reinhard Zetter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Leifur A. Símonarson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Thomas Denk .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Denk, T., Grímsson, F., Zetter, R., Símonarson, L.A. (2011). Introduction to the Nature and Geology of Iceland. In: Late Cainozoic Floras of Iceland. Topics in Geobiology, vol 35. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0372-8_1

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation