Abstract
While it is the contention of the author that the crime of child soldier recruitment entered into existence in 1998 when the Rome Statute was drafted—as it was not until then that the crime obtained a clear mens rea and actus reus—the Special Court, in the Preliminary Motion in Prosecutor v Sam Hinga Norman, ruled that the crime had already ‘crystallised’ as a crime in international customary law. This issue of crystallisation had direct relevance for the question of individual criminal responsibility, and, in attempting to determine when the mens rea and actus reus of the crime were formulated, marks a critical moment in the development of the crime. It therefore also has implications for international criminal law more generally, as it concerns the precise moment when a treaty provision can be regarded as an international crime. This chapter also provides a background to the Sierra Leone civil war and the establishment of the Special Court, in particular the drafting of Article 4 of its Statute, providing for the war crime of child recruitment. It also assesses the approach of the Special Court towards the question of prosecuting child soldiers, and its treatment of child soldier witnesses.
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Notes
- 1.
Prosecutor v Sam Hinga Norman (Fourth Defence Preliminary Motion Based on Lack of Jurisdiction (Child Recruitment)) SCSL-04-14-AR72 (31 May 2004 [Hereafter ‘The Preliminary Motion’].
- 2.
Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, Global Report 2008—Sierra Leone http://www.childsoldiersglobalreport.org/content/sierra-leone Accessed 23 March 2013.
- 3.
Global Security, ‘The Rebel United Front’. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/ruf.htm Accessed 8 March 2013.
- 4.
Prosecutor v Issa Hassan Sesay, Morris Kallon and Augustine Gbao (“The RUF Case”) (Judgment) SCSL-04-15-T SCSL (2 March 2009) [21] [Hereafter ‘RUF Trial Judgment’].
- 5.
Bellows and Miguel 2003, p. 1146.
- 6.
Rosen 2010, p. 105.
- 7.
Prosecutor v Sam Hinga Norman, Moinina Fofana and Allieu Kondewa (“The CDF Case”) (Indictment) SCSL-03-14-I (5 February 2004) [Hereafter ‘CDF Indictment’]. See also: Journeyman Pictures, Kamajor Crisis (Documentary, 1998) www.journeyman.tv/?lid=9975 Accessed 21 March 2013.
- 8.
Bright 2000.
- 9.
CDF Indictment (n 7 above), p. 19.
- 10.
Francis 2005, p. 61.
- 11.
- 12.
Monforte 2007, p. 176.
- 13.
BBC News, Sierra Leone War ‘Hero' On Trial. (London, 10 June 2004) http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3793727.stm Accessed 28 March.
- 14.
Dougherty 2004, p. 39.
- 15.
Novicki 2000, p. 10.
- 16.
Journeyman Pictures (1998), Kamajor Crisis. www.journeyman.tv/?lid=9975 Accessed 21 March 2013.
- 17.
‘Peace Agreement between the Government of Sierra Leoneand the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone (RUF/SL)’ 7 July 1999. Part III, Article IX.
- 18.
Ibid Article IX.3.
- 19.
United Nations (1998), ‘Crisis in Sierra Leone Highlights Urgent Need for an International Criminal Court’ UN Doc. HR/98/40. http://www.unhchr.ch/Huricane/Huricane.nsf/0e3eb737630f44ea80256601005b87be/521965124f83691dc125662e00352faa?OpenDocument Accessed 28 March 2013.
- 20.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1260 (20 August 1999) UN Doc S/RES/1260. Comment made by Mr. Eldon of the United Kingdom: ‘The Lomé Agreement is not perfect. The inclusion of a blanket amnesty for those who have committed appalling atrocities has rightly caused concern. But this was one of many hard choices that the Government and the people of Sierra Leone had to make in the interests of securing a workable agreement.’
- 21.
Keiseng 2002, p. 5.
- 22.
Bright 2000.
- 23.
UNSC Res 1315 (14 August 2000) UN Doc S/RES/1315.
- 24.
Prosecutor v Charles Ghankay Taylor SCSL-03-1-T. The case against Charles Taylor—the former president of Liberia—also included the crime of child soldier recruitment within its indictment, and the Trial Judgment was delivered on 26 April 2012.
- 25.
UNSC Res 1315 (14 August 2000) UN Doc S/RES/1315.
- 26.
Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, 2178 UNTS 138; UN Doc. S/2002/246, appendix II. [Hereafter ‘Special Court Statute’].
- 27.
UNGA ‘Report of the Secretary-General on the Establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone’ (4 October 2000) UN Doc S/2000/915.
- 28.
Ibid.
- 29.
The Prosecutor v Sam Hinga Norman (Fourth Defence Preliminary Motion Based on Lack of Jurisdiction (Child Recruitment), Dissenting Opinion of Justice Robertson) SCSL-04-14-AR72 (31 May 2004) [Hereafter ‘Dissenting Opinion of Justice Robertson’] [3].
- 30.
UNSC ‘Letter dated 22 December 2000 from the President of the Security Council addressed to the Secretary-General’ (22 December 2000) UN Doc. S/2000/1234 2.
- 31.
Amnesty International ‘Sierra Leone: Recommendations on the draft Statute of the Special Court’ (2000) http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/AFR51/083/2000/en Assessed 8 August 2011.
- 32.
Villanueva Sainz-Pardo 2008, p. 581.
- 33.
- 34.
Bakker 2010, p. 26.
- 35.
Special Court Statute (n 26 above) Article 7:
-
1.
The Special Court shall have no jurisdiction over any person who was under the age of 15 at the time of the alleged commission of the crime. Should any person who was at the time of the alleged commission of the crime between 15 and 18 years of age come before the Court, he or she shall be treated with dignity and a sense of worth, taking into account his or her young age and the desirability of promoting his or her rehabilitation, reintegration into and assumption of a constructive role in society, and in accordance with international human rights standards, in particular the rights of the child.
-
2.
In the disposition of a case against a juvenile offender, the Special Court shall order any of the following: care guidance and super- vision orders, community service orders, counselling, foster care, correctional, educational and vocational training programmes, approved schools and, as appropriate, any programmes of disarmament, demobilization and reintegration or programmes of child protection agencies.
-
1.
- 36.
Secretary General’s Report (n 27 above) para 33.
- 37.
Peters and Richards 1998.
- 38.
Grossman 2007, p. 328.
- 39.
IRIN 2011.
- 40.
Special Court Statute (n 26 above). The Statute provides that the Special Court has jurisdiction over persons who ‘bear the greatest responsibility for the commission of the crimes referred to in paragraph 2, including those leaders who, in committing such crimes, have threatened the establishment of and implementation of the peace process in Sierra Leone’ [Emphasis added].
- 41.
Ibid Article 19(1): The Trial Chamber shall impose upon a convicted person, other than a juvenile offender, imprisonment for a specified number of years. In determining the terms of imprisonment, the Trial Chamber shall, as appropriate, have recourse to the practice regarding prison sentences in the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwandaand the national courts of Sierra Leone.
- 42.
Ibid Article 7(2): In the disposition of a case against a juvenile offender, the Special Court shall order any of the following: care guidance and supervision orders, community service orders, counselling, foster care, correctional, educational and vocational training programmes, approved schools and, as appropriate, any programmes of disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration or programmes of child protection agencies.
- 43.
Faced with this issue in April 2009, the ICC Trial Chamber determined that there are direct and indirect victims: (i) direct victims who suffered harm as a result of the commission of a crime within the jurisdiction of the ICC and (ii) indirect victims ‘who suffer harm as a result of the harm suffered by direct victims’ (Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga (Decision on ‘indirect victims’) ICC-01/04-01/06-1813 (8 April 2009) [41–44]). Therefore, indirect victims are obliged to demonstrate that the harm caused to the primary victim brought about harm to them, as a direct result of their relationship with the primary victim. In applying this standard to the issue of child soldiers, the Trial Chamber explicitly provided that the victims of the conduct of direct victims cannot themselves be categorised as direct victims, because the harm they suffered was linked to events that occurred after the alleged crimes were perpetrated by the accused—the acts of conscription, enlistment or use. Therefore there is no causal link between the use of children to actively participate in hostilities and the harm perpetrated on others by the child soldiers during their participation in the conflict. This has the necessary consequence of guaranteeing respect for the principle of individual criminal responsibilityby only allowing for the responsibility of the accused for crimes for which he has been charged. This ruling does, however, leave the door open for the possibility of including crimes committed by child soldiers in future child recruitment cases, via the command responsibility mode of liability. This would have the effect of broadening the scope of liability of child recruiters, and emphasising that there are two levels of victim associated with this crime: the child soldiers forced to take part in hostilities, and those who suffer harm at their hands. See: Spiga 2010, pp. 1, 6, 7, 11.
- 44.
Parmar et al. 2009, p. 13.
- 45.
Côté 2005, pp. 26–31.
- 46.
Sanin and Stirnemann 2006, p. 2.
- 47.
Ibid.
- 48.
Ibid, p. 12.
- 49.
Parmar et al. 2009, p. 13.
- 50.
Côté 2005, p. 28.
- 51.
Ellison 2001, p. 23; Troxel et al. 2009, p. 10: ‘Studies indicate that children experience a sharp decline in memory immediately after an event that becomes more gradual as time passes. Although an adult’s memory deteriorates in the same way, the deterioration of children’s memory is more profound.’
- 52.
Berliner and Barbieri 1984, pp. 125–137.
- 53.
Prosecutor v Sam Hinga Norman, Moinina Fofana and Allieu Kondewa (“The CDF Case”) (Transcript) SCSL-2004-14-T (24 January 2006) [Hereafter ‘CDF Trial Transcript’] [45].
- 54.
Prosecutor v. Norman, Fofana, Kondewa (The CDF Case) SCSL-2004-14-T.
- 55.
CDF Trial Transcript (24 January 2006) [55–56].
- 56.
Ibid (30 January 2006) [67].
- 57.
Ibid (24 January 2006) [58].
- 58.
Ibid (1 February 2006) [3].
- 59.
Ibid.
- 60.
CDF Indictment (n 7 above).
- 61.
Ibid.
- 62.
Karamoh Kabba, Who Killed Sam Hinga Norman?, World Press (London, 12 March 2007) http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/2712.cfm Accessed 28 March 2013.
- 63.
J Ansumana, Civil Society Pays Respect to Norman in Sierra Leone, Awareness Times (Freetown 9 March 2007) http://news.sl/drwebsite/exec/view.cgi?archive=4&num=4938 Accessed 28 March 2013.
- 64.
Karamoh (n 62 above).
- 65.
‘Agreement between the United Nations and the Government of Sierra Leoneof 16 January 2002’ (16 January 2002).
- 66.
Karamoh (n 62 above).
- 67.
Munda Sam-Foray A (2006) Sierra Leone's Hinga Norman was a Child Soldier in the British' Colonial Boys Platoon, Awareness Times (Freetown, 1 December 2006).
- 68.
CDF Indictment (n 7 above) ‘Count 8: Enlisting children under the age of 15 years into armed forces or groups or using them to participate actively in hostilities, an ‘Other Serious Violation of International Humanitarian Law’, punishable under Article 4.c of the Statute’.
- 69.
Ibid.
- 70.
The Preliminary Motion (n 1 above).
- 71.
Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, 2178 UNTS 138; UN Doc. S/2002/246, appendix II, Article 1(1).
- 72.
The Preliminary Motion (n 1 above) 1 A 1 (a).
- 73.
Chapter 4: Rome Statute—Codification of the Crime.
- 74.
Sivakumara 2010, p. 1012.
- 75.
Guibert and Blumenstock 2007, p. 380.
- 76.
Wharton 2011, p. 225.
- 77.
du Plessis 2004, p. 108.
- 78.
Smith 2004, p. 1152.
- 79.
Prosecutor v Sam Hinga Norman (Amicus Curiae of the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) SCSL-2003-08 (21 January 2004) 2, fn 1: ‘Following the terms of the 11 December 2003 Order, and for the purposes of efficiency in language, the term “recruitment” has been used throughout the brief, to refer to conscription, or enlistment of children into armed forces or groups, or their use for participating in hostilities’ http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/49aba9462.html Accessed 29 March 2013.
- 80.
The Preliminary Motion (n 1 above) [53].
- 81.
Ibid [50].
- 82.
The Geneva Conventions, the Additional Protocols, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, its Optional Protocol and the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights.
- 83.
The Preliminary Motion (n 1 above) [14].
- 84.
Prosecutor v Duško Tadić (Decision on Defence Motion on Jurisdiction) IT-94-1-T (10 August 1995) [128] [Hereafter ‘Tadić Decision on Jurisdiction’].
- 85.
Novogrodsky and Goldstein 2006, p. 148.
- 86.
The Preliminary Motion (n 1 above) [26–40].
- 87.
Dissenting Opinion of Justice Robertson (n 29 above) [21].
- 88.
Tadić Decision on Jurisdiction (n 84 above).
- 89.
The groundbreaking 1996 United Nations report by Graça Machel—entitled ‘The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children’—brought a significant amount of attention to the position of children in conflict. A full copy of the report is available here: http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf.
- 90.
Baxter 1970, p. 64.
- 91.
Columbia, Norway, Ireland, Argentina and Spain.
- 92.
Ireland, ‘Geneva ConventionsAct’ as amended (1962) Section 4(1) and (4); Argentina, ‘Draft Code of Military Justice’ (1998), Article 292; Norway, ‘Military Penal Code’ (1902) [108].
- 93.
Dissenting Opinion of Justice Robertson (n 29 above) [18].
- 94.
Shanker 2007.
- 95.
The Preliminary Motion (n 1 above) [22].
- 96.
Prosecutor v Sam Hinga Norman (Amicus Curiae of the University of Toronto International Human Rights Clinic and Interested International Human Rights Organizations) SCSL-2003-08 (21 January 2004) [42–50].
- 97.
Burchard 2006, p. 800.
- 98.
See: Milanovic 2010.
- 99.
The Preliminary Motion (n 1 above) [53].
- 100.
Ibid [4].
- 101.
Cape Town Principles and Best Practice on the Prevention of Recruitment of Children into the Armed Forces and Demobilization and Social Integration of Child Soldiers in Africa (30 April 1997) 4.
- 102.
Bhuwanee et al. 2006, p. 10.
- 103.
Ibid.
- 104.
Tadić Decision on Jurisdiction (n 84 above) [128].
- 105.
Statute of the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (Adopted 25 May 1993 by Resolution 827) (As Amended 13 May 1998 by Resolution 1166) (As Amended 30 November 2000 by Resolution 1329), Article 3: ‘The international tribunal shall have the power to prosecute persons violating the laws or customs of War.’
- 106.
Tadic Decision on Jurisdiction (n 84 above).
- 107.
The Preliminary Motion (n 1 above) [19].
- 108.
Sands 2003, p. 23.
- 109.
‘Dissenting Opinion of Judge Röling’ in Röling and Rüter 1977, p. 1059.
- 110.
Werle 2005, pp. 32–33.
- 111.
Gallant 2009, p. 3.
- 112.
Monforte 2007, p. 176.
- 113.
The Preliminary Motion (n 1 above) [2(d)].
- 114.
Ibid [52].
- 115.
Novogrodsky and Goldstein 2006, p. 149.
- 116.
Dissenting Opinion of Justice Robertson (n 29 above) [11].
- 117.
Cassese 2008, p. 149.
- 118.
Dissenting Opinion of Justice Robertson (n 29 above) [14].
- 119.
UN Doc. PCNICC/2000/1/Add.2 (2000) Elements of Crimes; CDF Indictment (n 7 above).
- 120.
Prosecutor v Enver Hadžihasanović, Mehmed Alagić and Amir Kubara, (Decision on Joint Challenge to Jurisdiction) ICTY-01-47-T (12 November 2002) [62].
- 121.
Prosecutor v Mitar Vasiljević (Judgment) ICTY-98-32-T (29 November 2002) [193].
- 122.
Ibid [194].
- 123.
The Preliminary Motion (n 1 above) [50].
- 124.
Ibid.
- 125.
Ibid [51].
- 126.
Amicus Curiae by the University of Toronto and others (n 96 above) [52].
- 127.
Smith 2004, p. 1152.
- 128.
Villiger 1977, p. 49, citing North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany v Denmark) [1069] ICJ Rep 71.
- 129.
Ibid p. 51.
- 130.
Dissenting Opinion of Justice Robertson (n 29 above) [14].
- 131.
Ibid [34].
- 132.
Schabas 2001, p. 50.
- 133.
UNGA Res 128 (9 December 1998) UN Doc A/RES/53/128.
- 134.
Dissenting Opinion of Justice Robertson (n 29 above) [6].
- 135.
Ibid [5].
- 136.
Secretary-General Report (n 27 above) p. 7.
- 137.
Dissenting Opinion of Justice Robertson (n 29 above) [8].
- 138.
Co-Prosecutors v Kaing Guek Eav alias "Duch" (Case 001) (Closing Order) 002/14-08-2006-ECCC/OCIJ (8 August 2008); Co-Prosecutors v Ieng Sary, Ieng Thirith, Khieu Samphan, Nuon Chea (Case 002) (Closing Order) 002/19-09-2007-ECCC/OCIJ (15 September 2010).
- 139.
Child Soldiers in Cambodia, LICADHO (Cambodian League for the Promotion and Defence of Human Rights) Briefing Paper, June 1998. http://www.licadho-cambodia.org/reports/files/19Briefing%20paper%20on%20child%20soldiers.pdf Accessed 5 January 2013.
- 140.
Happold 2005, p. 289.
- 141.
Africa Online News (2004) Sierra LeoneCourt Affirms Child Soldier Recruitment is War Crime’ (Freetown 3 June 2004) http://www.afrol.com/articles/13094 Accessed 29 March 2013.
- 142.
UNICEF Press Release ‘UNICEF welcomes Special Court ruling establishing Child Recruitment a 'War crime'’ (17 June 2004).
- 143.
Ibid.
- 144.
Novogrodsky and Goldstein 2006, p. 149
- 145.
Novogrodsky 2005, p. 425.
- 146.
A. Munda Sam-Foray (n 67 above).
- 147.
J. Ansumana (n 63 above).
- 148.
Ibid.
- 149.
Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (“The AFRC Case”) (Judgment) SCSL-04-16-T (20 July 2007).
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McBride, J. (2014). The Special Court for Sierra Leone: ‘Crystallisation’ and Child Soldiers. In: The War Crime of Child Soldier Recruitment. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-6704-921-4_3
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