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Contextual Application of Indigenousness in Africa

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Indigenousness in Africa

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Abstract

In the previous analysis, indigenousness was discussed in more general terms, the emphasis being put on historical evolution of the concept and related claims. The rise of indigenous identity was further reflected upon against the background of, and in contrast with, other related notions advocating societal pluralism or multiculturalism. The resonance of indigenousness and, to some extent, of correlated notions in the African setting was but incidentally touched upon. The present examination seeks to complement the former with a still theoretical insight into the highly complex identity debate in Africa. Mindful of the previously highlighted varying conception of indigenousness in retrospect, the starting point is an inquiry into the historical roots of indigenous claims in Africa. Subsequently, the analysis elaborates on general features and characteristics of groups claiming indigenousness in Africa before coming back to the highly contested foundation of their exclusive indigenous claims. These claims are examined in light of the multiethnic dimension of most African countries and national constitutional orders of a number of African countries.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Hutchful 1995–1996, Kaldor 1999.

  2. 2.

    See Art. 2(VI) of the General Act of the Berlin Conference. On terminological uses of ‘scramble for Africa’, see, e.g., Chamberlain 1999 and Pakenham 1991.

  3. 3.

    ILO Convention No. 107, ratifications, http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/convdisp1.htm. Accessed 24 July 2007.

  4. 4.

    Angola, Egypt, Tunisia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau and Malawi are party to ILO Convention No. 107 as of July 2007. As of the same date, the latter three states have no listed groups actively involved or enlisted in the indigenous rights movement.

  5. 5.

    Western Sahara, Advisory Opinion of 16 October 1975, ICJ Reports 1975, 12, where reference is made to consultation of ‘indigenous population’ for purposes of assessing whether the decolonization process is in conformity with the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, GA Res. 1514 (XV) of 14 December 1960 (see paras 48, 62 and 3–4 of the Opinion).

  6. 6.

    Kingsbury 1998, p. 426.

  7. 7.

    This position is developed by Maiguashca 1994, Niezen 2003, pp. 1–28, Kenrick and Lewis 2004, p. 5.

  8. 8.

    Niezen 2003, pp. 1–28.

  9. 9.

    See, e.g., Burger 1987, pp. 162–176, Brölmann and Zieck 1993, pp. 187 et seq. (note 1 acknowledges the limited inclusion of Africa).

  10. 10.

    Burger 1987, pp. 162 et seq.

  11. 11.

    The terms ‘spiritual and cultural roots’ are borrowed from Coates 2004, pp. 42 et seq.

  12. 12.

    Bowen 2000, pp. 13 et seq.; Kuper 2003, p. 395.

  13. 13.

    The Berlin Conference as a starting point in institutionalizing conceptualizations of indigenousness is suggested by Special Rapporteur Daes, E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/1996/2, para 11.

  14. 14.

    On the linkage between marginalization and the formation of modern African states, see Ngugi 2002, pp. 297–351; Igoe 2006, pp. 399–420.

  15. 15.

    According to Crawhall 2004, p. 42, indigenous claims in Africa are related to a coalescence of, among others, the following factors: (i) political and economic marginalization rooted in colonialism; (ii) ethnic discrimination linked to competing economic systems; (iii) the particularities of culture, identity, economy and territoriality, that link hunting and herding peoples to their environments; (iv) some indigenous peoples, such as the San and Pygmy peoples are physically distinctive, which makes them subject to specific forms of prejudice and abuse.

  16. 16.

    ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, p. 20.

  17. 17.

    Ibid., pp. 22–33.

  18. 18.

    In this respect, see the constantly updated account of challenges faced by indigenous peoples worldwide in IWGIA, The Indigenous World 1999–2000, 2000–2001, 2001–2002, 2002–2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 Reports), http://www.iwgia.org/sw6419.asp. Accessed 3 September 2007.

  19. 19.

    Ibid., See also Niezen 2003, pp. 20–23.

  20. 20.

    Martinez Cobo 1987, paras 19–20 and 302.

  21. 21.

    See Saugestad 2001a, pp. 299–322.

  22. 22.

    Niezen 2003, pp. 40–93, Oguamanam 2004, p. 386.

  23. 23.

    Niezen 2003, p. 191.

  24. 24.

    See Anaya 2004, pp. 15 et seq.

  25. 25.

    Burman 2003, p. 10.

  26. 26.

    Alfonso Martinez 1995, para 121.

  27. 27.

    On reference thereon, see Niezen 2003, pp. 22 et seq.

  28. 28.

    The complexity and resulting paradox is subsumed in the revealing phrase: ‘not all peoples indigenous to Africa are “indigenous peoples’”. See Barnard and Kenrick 2001, p. vii.

  29. 29.

    The shift is well highlighted in Prah 2004, pp. 6–24, UNDP 2004, pp. 47–72. See also Tully 1995, pp. 1 et seq.

  30. 30.

    Ngugi 2002, p. 327.

  31. 31.

    For some literature on ILO Convention No. 107, see Barsh 1987, Swepston 1990.

  32. 32.

    Sanders 1995; see also Niezen 2003, pp. 40–50; Maiguashca 2004), pp. 22–33.

  33. 33.

    Sanders 1989, p. 414.

  34. 34.

    Ibid., p. 415.

  35. 35.

    See Parkipuny 1989; A. Muehleback 2001, p. 420.

  36. 36.

    Ibid.

  37. 37.

    On the transformation of local NGOs into fora advocating ‘indigenous peoples’ rights in coalescence with indigenous peoples’ organizations around the world, see Igoe 2006, pp. 400 et seq.; Igoe 2003; Kouevi 2000, pp. 184–186.

  38. 38.

    Hodgson 2002b, p. 1088.

  39. 39.

    Igoe 2006, p. 407. The author specifically refers to the mission statement of the Copenhagen-based IWGIA aimed at ‘stimulating indigenous self-organization’. On this, see IWGIA 1998, p. 4.

  40. 40.

    Sanders 2003, p. 15.

  41. 41.

    IWGIA 1998, p. 4.

  42. 42.

    Verber et al. 1993, p. 6.

  43. 43.

    Stamatopoulou 1994, pp. 60–61.

  44. 44.

    Ibid., p. 69. See also Tennant 1994, pp. 46–49.

  45. 45.

    For the establishment of the forum, see UN Doc. E/RES/2000/22.

  46. 46.

    Illustratively, a total number of 427 and 583 delegates were formally accredited at the twenty-third (E/CN.4/Sub.2/2005/26, 12 August 2005) and twenty-fourth (A/HRC/Sub.1/58/22, 14 August 2006) sessions of the UNWGIP, respectively.

  47. 47.

    As of August 2009. See details in ILO 2003.

  48. 48.

    ECOSOC, Report[s] on the Seminar[s] on ‘Multiculturalism in Africa: Peaceful and Constructive Group Accommodation in Situations Involving Minorities and Indigenous Peoples’, Arusha, Tanzania, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.5/2000/WP.3, 20 May 2000; Kidal, Mali, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.5/2001/3, 2 April 2001; and Gaborone, Botswana, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/2002/4, 17 June 2002.

  49. 49.

    ACHPR, Resolution on the Rights of Indigenous Populations/Communities in Africa, 28th Ord. Sess., Cotonou/Benin, 23 October–6 November 2000, 14th Annual Activity Report, ACHPR/Res.51(XXVIII)00. See also the text in AHG/229(XXXVII), p. 14.

  50. 50.

    See UNPFII 2006.

  51. 51.

    Illustratively, see ACHPR and IWGIA 2006, pp. 14–16; ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, pp. 15–19.

  52. 52.

    Population, Resources, Environment and Development: The 2005 Revision, http://unstats.un.org/pop/dVariables/DRetrieval.aspx. Accessed 6 March 2007.

  53. 53.

    See the UN data, which estimates Indian total population at 1,103,371,000 (2005) and 1,183,293,000 (2010), http://unstats.un.org/pop/dVariables/DRetrieval.aspx. Accessed 6 March 2007.

  54. 54.

    The same source estimated that the Chinese population totalled 1,315,844,000 people in 2005 and 1,354,533,000 people in 2010

  55. 55.

    On ethnicity in Africa under historical perspective, see Berman 1998, Lodhi 1993.

  56. 56.

    See Lentz 1995.

  57. 57.

    As in, for instance, Posner 2004, Blanton et al. 2001, pp. 473–491.

  58. 58.

    Chazan et al. 1999, p. 108.

  59. 59.

    Tully 1995, p. 3.

  60. 60.

    Administrative entities of Nigeria, Democratic Republic of Congo and Somalia, respectively. For an elaborated discussion thereon, see Klabbers and Lefeber 1993, pp. 46–53.

  61. 61.

    Borrowed from William 2004, p. 45.

  62. 62.

    Compare African Union (AU), Decision on the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (Doc. Assembly/Au/9 (VIII) Add. 6), Assembly/AU/Dec.141 (VIII) 29–30 January 2007 with the various articles, statements and press releases on the 2006 deferral of the adoption of the said Declaration by the UN General Assembly, at http://www.iwgia.org/sw18043.asp. Accessed 16 March 2007.

  63. 63.

    Chazan et al. 1999, p. 5. This alternative figure results from the contentious status of Western Sahara, recognized by the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and its successor, the AU, as a separate state.

  64. 64.

    Ayittey 1992, p. 3. See also Lodhi 1993, p. 79, where the author posits, from the linguistic perspective, that of the ‘estimated 6,200 languages and dialects in the world, 2,582 languages and 1,382 dialects are found in Africa’.

  65. 65.

    See MRG 1997.

  66. 66.

    On the ethnic composition of Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo and Nigeria, see Skutsch 2005, pp. 259, 326 (Vol. 1) and p. 914 (Vol. 2), respectively; and MRG 1997, pp. 479, 523 and 444, respectively; see also CERD 2006, para 17 (450 different tribes).

  67. 67.

    The three volumes of Skutsch 2005, provide the following data on ethnic or linguistic composition of these countries: in Ethiopia some 50–70 ethnic and/or linguistic groups; in Ivory Coast some 60 different groups; in Kenya some 70 ‘tribal’ groups; Tanzania some 120 linguistic groups; Uganda more than 40 distinct groups; and in South Africa some 50 to 70 groups further classified by racial group.

  68. 68.

    See Ramutsindela 1997.

  69. 69.

    Easterly and Levine 1997, p. 1219.

  70. 70.

    Fearon 2004, p. 3.

  71. 71.

    This is the case for Burundi and Rwanda where Hutu, Tutsi and Twa are listed by MRG as ‘peoples under threat’, as it appears in Minority Rights Group International (MRG) 2007, p. 118.

  72. 72.

    Minority Rights Group International (MRG) 2007, p. 11.

  73. 73.

    See, e.g., Taylor et al. 1994, pp. 25 et seq.; Kymlicka and Norman 2000, pp. 1 et seq.

  74. 74.

    Igoe 2006, pp. 399–402.

  75. 75.

    ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, p. 15.

  76. 76.

    Crawhall 2004, p. 42.

  77. 77.

    Spielmann and Eder 1994, p. 311.

  78. 78.

    Diop 1974, pp. 1 et seq.

  79. 79.

    IWGIA 2000a, p. 2.

  80. 80.

    See Shott 1992.

  81. 81.

    Lee and Hitchcock 2001, p. 258.

  82. 82.

    See, e.g., Blench 1999.

  83. 83.

    Barnard 2006, Guenther et al. 2006, Solway and Lee 1992.

  84. 84.

    On the Central African region, See Biesbrouck et al. 1999, pp. 1 et seq.

  85. 85.

    Barnard 2006, p. 2.

  86. 86.

    Ibid., pp. 1–16.

  87. 87.

    Guenther et al. 2006, p. 21.

  88. 88.

    Lee and Hitchcock 2001, p. 260.

  89. 89.

    Ibid., p. 260.

  90. 90.

    This seems to be the case for a number of groups in the Congo basin whose identification has not (yet) been undertaken.

  91. 91.

    Lee and Hitchcock 2001, p. 260.

  92. 92.

    Lee and Daly 1999, p. 176. For other figures, see Burger 1987, p. 166; Campbell 2004, p. 10.

  93. 93.

    See generally Lee 2006.

  94. 94.

    ‘Batwa’ is the plural of the commonly used ‘Twa’, the latter being a stem word out of which Ba or Mu prefixes are added to, respectively make singular and plural forms in many ‘Bantu’ languages.

  95. 95.

    On some relevant studies, see Lewis 2000, p. 5; Barume 2000, pp. 50–58.

  96. 96.

    Hitchcock and Vinding 2004.

  97. 97.

    Lewis and Nelson 2006, p. 9; IWGIA 2000b, p. 11.

  98. 98.

    This can be drawn from a combined reading of Barume 2000, p. 53; Lee and Daly 1999, p. 176. The said countries are Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo (Democratic Republic of), Congo (Republic of), Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Rwanda, Uganda, Zambia and Angola.

  99. 99.

    Saugestad 2004, pp. 26–30.

  100. 100.

    See Solway and Lee 1992, p. 202. See also Hitchcock 1996, p. 13.

  101. 101.

    Lee and Daly 1999, pp. 178–179. See also ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, p. 16.

  102. 102.

    Sadr 1997.

  103. 103.

    Ibid., pp. 22–25. See also Lee 2006, p. 461.

  104. 104.

    Shott 1992, pp. 850 et seq.; Kent 1992, pp. 46 et seq.

  105. 105.

    See ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, pp. 15–17.

  106. 106.

    Due to fluctuations and imprecision on the figures, tables I and II (in appendices) do not provide for totals of claimant indigenous groups in either category.

  107. 107.

    Lee and Hitchcock 2001, p. 260.

  108. 108.

    Joiris 2003.

  109. 109.

    See, for instance, the various reports by IWGIA, mainly the (yearly) Indigenous World, and the periodic Indigenous Affairs.

  110. 110.

    Crawhall 2004, p. 42.

  111. 111.

    See IWGIA 2000a, and the various yearly IWGIA reports, The Indigenous World. See also ACHPR and IWGIA 2005.

  112. 112.

    Igoe 2006, p. 402.

  113. 113.

    Ibid., p. 400. See also IWGIA 1999b, pp. 34–37.

  114. 114.

    See the previous remarks on first participation by an African delegation—Moringe Ole Parkipuny—in the UNWGIP.

  115. 115.

    See, e.g., IWGIA 2006, pp. 421 et seq.

  116. 116.

    Verber and Wæhle 1993, p. 10.

  117. 117.

    For some relevant literature, see Igoe and Brockington 1999, pp. 5 et seq.; Lee and Daly 1999, p. 181.

  118. 118.

    Hodgson 2001; Igoe 2006, p. 408, whereby the author argues that this domination of pastoralists subsists in the present framework of indigenous activism where Maasai are dominant and use hunter/gatherers and other groups to assert their legitimacy.

  119. 119.

    As featuring in the title of the above referred to book by D.L. Hodgson (Once Intrepid Warriors.

  120. 120.

    This is to be contrasted with claims of autonomous existence of African hunter-gatherers until a relatively recent past, used as the main issue in the previously evoked Kalahari debate.

  121. 121.

    The case of Maasai in both Kenya and Tanzania as some group members rose to such posts as prime minister of Tanzania in the 1980s (Edward Sokoine) or vice-president in the Kenyan presidential cabinet of the 1990s (George Saitoti) as mentioned in Igoe 2006, p. 417.

  122. 122.

    Waller 1999, p. 20.

  123. 123.

    Notwithstanding Blench’s somewhat blurred differentiation between fundamentally nomadic pastoralist groups and non-pastoralist but cattle keepers groups because they are sedentary, as paraphrased in Azarya 1999, p. 17.

  124. 124.

    For relevant literature, see Chrétien 2003, Fratkin 2001, pp. 3–4.

  125. 125.

    Kipuri 2001, pp. 246–275.

  126. 126.

    Most revealing is the title of the book by Azarya 1978.

  127. 127.

    Kingsbury 1998, p. 455; Saugestad 2001b, pp. 55–67.

  128. 128.

    These seem to be the conclusions reached by once UN Special Rapporteur Alfonso Martínez, E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/20, paras 89–91.

  129. 129.

    For further details, see Mamdani 2001, pp. 234–263.

  130. 130.

    Ibid., For a relatively recent historical account of tensions related thereon, see ECOSOC 1994, paras 85–95; and, Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Zaire, Prepared by the Special Rapporteur, Roberto Garreton, in Accordance with Commission Resolution 1995/69, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1996/66, 29 January 1996, paras 23–37.

  131. 131.

    See the above UN reports, ECOSOC 1994, paras 85–95, and E/CN.4/1996/66, paras 23–37.

  132. 132.

    Niezen 2003, p. 183.

  133. 133.

    See generally Mamdani 2001.

  134. 134.

    Qualified reference to ‘pastoralist Tutsi’ and ‘agriculturalist Hutu’ revisits the generalized depiction of members of these groups under very reductionist terms not necessarily reflecting contemporary reality.

  135. 135.

    Estimates vary from 14 million (Burger 1987, p. 166), more than 22 million (Campbell 2004, p. 10); to a more general figure of African pastoralists said to number more than 50 million peoples (Markakis 2004, p. 15).

  136. 136.

    Tomei 2005, p. 19.

  137. 137.

    Markakis 2004, p. 15.

  138. 138.

    ICRC 2005, p. 1.

  139. 139.

    Ibid., p. 3.

  140. 140.

    Saugestad 2004, pp. 26–30, Suzman 2002, Crawhall 1999.

  141. 141.

    Suzman 2001b, p. 72.

  142. 142.

    See statistics South Africa: 2001 Digital Census Atlas, http://www.statssa.gov.za/census2001/digiAtlas/index.html. Accessed 6 July 2007.

  143. 143.

    Robins 2001, p. 846 note 44.

  144. 144.

    See IWGIA 2007, p. 434; Congrès Mondial Amazigh, ‘Les Amazigh du Maroc: Un Peuple Marginalizé’, http://www.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cescr/docs/info-ngos/CMA.pdf. Accessed 9 March 2007, p. 2. The countries are Egypt, Morocco, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, Canary Islands, Mauritania, and in diaspora; ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, pp. 22–24.

  145. 145.

    Maddy-Weitzman 2006, p. 73.

  146. 146.

    A prominent leader of the Amazigh movement stated that dynamics aimed at promoting this pan-Sahara identity emerged in 1993 (UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.5/2000/WP.3, para 8).

  147. 147.

    Kratochwil 1999, p. 149 note 1.

  148. 148.

    ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, pp. 18–19.

  149. 149.

    Wane 2006. See also Dutilly-Diane 2006.

  150. 150.

    See de Bruijn and van Dijk 2003.

  151. 151.

    Leblon 2006, p. 3.

  152. 152.

    Tonah 2002.

  153. 153.

    ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, p. 18. Some studies list Ethiopia and Eritrea among the homelands of Fulbe/Fulani peoples, as in de Bruijn and van Dijk 2003, p. 288.

  154. 154.

    See Moritz 2005, p. 86. For alternative, lower but generic estimates, see Gordon 2000, p. 298.

  155. 155.

    Tonah 2003.

  156. 156.

    Ibid., p. 18.

  157. 157.

    For relevant literature, see Hickey 2002, Tchoumba 2005, pp. 20–22.

  158. 158.

    Igoe 2006, p. 416. See also Lee 2006, pp. 465–468.

  159. 159.

    Woodburn 2001, p. 12.

  160. 160.

    Lee 2006, p. 467.

  161. 161.

    ICRC 2005, p. 5; Salih 1993.

  162. 162.

    Saugestad 2001b, pp. 77–78. See also illustrations in UNDP 2001, pp. 1–12.

  163. 163.

    Hodgson 2002a, pp. 1041 et seq.

  164. 164.

    Igoe 2003, p. 867.

  165. 165.

    ACHPR and IWGIA 2006, pp. 15–16.

  166. 166.

    Meeting of the author with Honorine Abra Mawwanvi, a representative from the group during the 6th Session of the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues.

  167. 167.

    Ezetah 1996–1997, p. 814.

  168. 168.

    Ibid., p. 811. See also Clifford 2002.

  169. 169.

    Clifford 2002, p. 396 (estimates dated 2002); Worika 2001–2002, p. 7.

  170. 170.

    UN, World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision and World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 Revision, http://esa.un.org/unpp/p2k0data.asp. Accessed 15 June 2007.

  171. 171.

    ACHPR and IWGIA 2006, p. 16.

  172. 172.

    The names and figures are provided by Worika 2001–2002, pp. 4–5.

  173. 173.

    Ibid., p. 5.

  174. 174.

    Oloka-Onyango 2002–2003, pp. 860–862.

  175. 175.

    For Tanzanian Maasai, see Hodgson 2002b, pp. 1086–1087, where the author mentions the existence of more than 100 indigenous NGOs. See also Igoe 2003, pp. 864 et seq. For Kenya, see Little 1998; and for Rwanda’s Twa, see Lewis and Knight 1995, pp. 99–102.

  176. 176.

    On these debates, see Hodgson 2002a, pp. 1037–1049; Kuper 2003, pp. 389–402; Barnard 2006, pp. 1–6; Guenther et al. 2006, pp. 17–31; Asch et al. 2004.

  177. 177.

    See Kuper 2003, pp. 389–395, for a similar comment.

  178. 178.

    Hence, Kuper wondered whether ‘the English’ qualify as an indigenous people as ‘some of their ancestors once experienced colonization by the Romans’. See Kuper reply to M. Asch and C. Samson, Kuper 2003, p. 265.

  179. 179.

    See Verber et al. 1993, p. 5.

  180. 180.

    Berge 1993, p. 235.

  181. 181.

    Ibid.

  182. 182.

    See IWGIA 2001–2002, p. 453. For a text of the resulting resolutions, see IWGIA 1999a, pp. 50–55.

  183. 183.

    Arusha Resolutions, paras 9.2–9.3.

  184. 184.

    UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.5/2001/3, para 7.

  185. 185.

    See UN Docs. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.5/2000/WP.3; E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.5/2001/3; E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/2002/4.

  186. 186.

    See Thornberry 2002, p. 260.

  187. 187.

    UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.5/2001/3, para 52.

  188. 188.

    Ibid.

  189. 189.

    Ibid., para 53.

  190. 190.

    Ibid.

  191. 191.

    UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/2002/4, paras 32–39. See also Werbner 2002.

  192. 192.

    Participants in the Arusha, Kidal and Gaborone conferences were representatives from claimant indigenous or minority groups, advocacy groups, the UN and affiliated bodies. Except representatives from hosting states, records show that government representatives were generally not present in these gatherings.

  193. 193.

    See the various papers compiled in Barnard and Kenrick 2001.

  194. 194.

    Thornberry 2002, pp. 246–247.

  195. 195.

    Ibid., p. 246.

  196. 196.

    As acknowledged for instance in IWGIA 1998, p. 4.

  197. 197.

    UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.5/2001/3, para 61.

  198. 198.

    See Kymlicka 1995, ch. 2. See also Thornberry 2001, p. 82.

  199. 199.

    Alfonso Martínez, E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/20, para 91. The MRG 1997, pp. 388–533, lists numerous African groups as minorities.

  200. 200.

    This organization participates in UN sponsored indigenous gatherings, as reflected in Festus 2007, on behalf of the organization.

  201. 201.

    This is a case of the Karamojong, Ogoni, Oromo, Tuareg, among others, listed as indigenous peoples in the ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, pp. 15–16. Representatives from these groups participated in sessions of the UN Working Group on Minorities. See their statements at the 12th Sess. in 2006, http://www.ohchr.org/english/issues/minorities/group/main.htm. Accessed 11 October 2007.

  202. 202.

    This results from the previously invoked jurisprudence of the HRC and, mostly, its General Comment No. 23: The Rights of Minorities (Art. 27), UN Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.5, 8 April 1997, paras 3.2 and 7.

  203. 203.

    UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.5/2001/3, para 13.

  204. 204.

    As argued by UN Special Rapporteur Alfonso Martinez in Alfonso Martinez 1995, para 109.

  205. 205.

    OAU, Resolution on Border Disputes among African States, AHSG, 1st Ord. Sess., Cairo/UAR, 17–21 July 1964, AHG/Res. 16(I). See also Klabbers and Lefeber 1993, pp. 37 et seq.

  206. 206.

    Divergent figures vary from 33,000 to 41,000. On these figures, see Suzman 2002, p. 19; Morawa 2002, p. 2.

  207. 207.

    Niezen 2003, pp. 21–22 (emphasis added).

  208. 208.

    See Oosthuizen 2004, pp. 93–111; Madley 2005; Werner 1993, p. 139.

  209. 209.

    J.G.A. Diergaardt (late Captain of the Rehoboth Baster Community) et al. v. Namibia, Communication No. 760/1997, UN Doc. CCPR/C/69/D/760/1997 (2000), paras 2.1–2.7.

  210. 210.

    Ibid., para 2.3.

  211. 211.

    Krüger 1998 p. 81.

  212. 212.

    Kjæret and Stokke 2003.

  213. 213.

    Rehoboth People's Motion in the Wake of Namibian Independence of 1990, 20 March 1990, http://www.rehobothbasters.org/images/stories/treaties_declarations/rehobothpeoplesdeclarationindependence1990.pdf. Accessed 10 July 2007.

  214. 214.

    Simon 1996.

  215. 215.

    The Rehoboth Bastergemeente and J. G. A. Diergaardt v. The Government of the Republic of Namibiaand others, High Court of Namibia, Judgment of 26 May 1995, paras 1–37, http://www.rehobothbasters.org/images/stories/treaties_declarations/high_court_namibia_1995.pdf. Accessed 10 July 2007.

  216. 216.

    Rehoboth Bastergemeente v. Government of the Republic of Namibia, Supreme Court of Namibia, 1996 NR 238 (SC), Judgment of 14 May 1996.

  217. 217.

    Other invoked provisions were Art. 14 (fair trial), Art. 17 (right to privacy), and Art. 25(a), (c) (participation public affairs and access to public service).

  218. 218.

    J.G.A. Diergaardt (late Captain of the Rehoboth Baster Community) et al. v. Namibia, para 10.6.

  219. 219.

    Ibid.

  220. 220.

    Ibid., paras 10.10–11.

  221. 221.

    The Rehoboth Baster's Declaration as an Autochthonous and Indigenous Peoples of 1992, at http://www.rehobothbasters.org/images/stories/treaties_declarations/rehobothbasterdeclarationindigenous%20people1992.pdf. Accessed 10 July 2007.

  222. 222.

    Peeters 1993.

  223. 223.

    See http://www.rehobothbasters.org/images/stories/treaties_declarations/Treaty-RB-Griqua-Nama-1996–1997.pdf. Accessed 1 November 2007.

  224. 224.

    See the reports of the Working Group on Indigenous Populations, 11th-23rd sessions: UN Docs. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1993/29, 23 August 1993; E/CN.4/Sub.2/1994/30, 17 August 1994; E/CN.4/Sub.2/1995/24, 10 August 1995; E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/21, 16 August 1996; E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/14, 13 August 1997; E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/16, 19 August 1998; E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/19, 12 August 1999; E/CN.4/Sub.2/2000/24, 17 August 2000; E/CN.4/Sub.2/2001/17, 9 August 2001; E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/24, 8 August 2002; E/CN.4/Sub.2/2003/22, 11 August 2003; E/CN.4/Sub.2/2004/28, 3 August 2004; E/CN.4/Sub.2/2005/26, 12 August 2005.

  225. 225.

    Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) and Rehoboth Basters Kaptein’s Council, ‘Alienation of Rehoboth lands’, http://www.rehobothbasters.org/images/stories/Books_Reports/rehobothbasters_unpfii2007.pdf. Accessed 10 July 2007.

  226. 226.

    See Ramutsindela 1998, p. 184.

  227. 227.

    Crawhall 1999, p. 11.

  228. 228.

    Stavenhagen 2005, para 79.

  229. 229.

    Ibid.

  230. 230.

    Robins 2001, p. 847.

  231. 231.

    See, for instance, Corntassel and Primeau 1998, p. 150.

  232. 232.

    Corntassel 2003; Thornberry 2002, pp. 33–34.

  233. 233.

    The various reports of the UNWGIP referred to above show that Rehoboth Basters representatives were listed under ‘indigenous peoples’ organizations and nations, as well as other ‘organizations and groups’ in 1993; then under (non-indigenous) ‘organizations and groups’ during the following two sessions (1994 and 1995) before reappearing under the former category for the subsequent years.

  234. 234.

    UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1994/30, para 28.

  235. 235.

    Kuper 2003, p. 389. See also Béteille 1998, pp. 188–189.

  236. 236.

    Barnard 2006, p. 7. See also Kenrick and Lewis 2004, pp. 4–16; Asch et al. 2004, pp. 261–265.

  237. 237.

    See the introductory words of Burger 1987, p. 1.

  238. 238.

    Kuper 2003, p. 401. See also Sylvain 2005.

  239. 239.

    Suzman, reply in Kuper 2003, p. 399.

  240. 240.

    Sylvain 2005, p. 356.

  241. 241.

    Niezen 2003, p. 21, where Rehoboth Basters case is presented as an exception in a system in which ‘indigenous delegates come to the meetings with little insecurity about their own status as ‘indigenous’ and few open doubts about the claims of others’. For other supporters of the movement, see also Kenrick and Lewis 2004, pp. 4–9.

  242. 242.

    See generally Sylvain 2005, p. 356; Burman 2003, p. 10; and Suzman 2001a, pp. 273–297.

  243. 243.

    AU, Assembly/AU/Dec.141 (VIII), paras 1–10.

  244. 244.

    This statement does not ignore the (possible) relevance of ILO Conventions Nos. 107 and 169 in (some) African countries, as subsequent analysis will show.

  245. 245.

    ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, p. 47.

  246. 246.

    Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Proclamation (No. 1 of 1995), Federal Negarit Gazeta, 1995-08-21, Year 1, No. 1, 1–38.

  247. 247.

    Henrard and Smis 2000, p. 43. See also Abbay 2004.

  248. 248.

    Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act No. 108 of 1996), Government Gazette, 1996–12–18, Vol. 378, No. 17678, http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/a108-96.pdf. Accessed 27 July 2007.

  249. 249.

    Ch. 1, s. 6(2), in relation to languages, in the ‘founding provisions’ of the Constitution.

  250. 250.

    Ch. 14, Sched. 4, part A (Functional Areas of Concurrent National and Provincial Legislative Competence).

  251. 251.

    Ch. 14, Sched. 6, s. 26(b) on local government.

  252. 252.

    As in ss. 57(2)(b), 61(3), 70(2)(c), 116(2)(b).

  253. 253.

    On these cases, see Richtersveld Community and Others v. Alexkor Ltd and Another, 2001 (3) SA 1293 (LCC) (Land Claims Court Judgment); Richtersveld Community and Others v. Alexkor Ltd and Another, 2003 (6) SA 104 (SCA) (Supreme Court of Appeal Judgment); Alexcor Limited & Another v. The Richtersveld Community & Others, 2003 (12) BCLR 1301 (CC) (Constitutional Court Judgment); and The Richtersveld Community v. Alexkor Ltd and Another, 2004 SA 151/98 (LCC) (Land Claims Court’s second Judgment).

  254. 254.

    As well summarized in para 16 of Supreme Court of Appeal Judgment: ‘The Richtersveld people are a sub-group of the Nama people who in turn are generally considered by anthropologists to be a sub-group of the Khoi (also called Khoikhoi and, in former times, Hottentot) people. The Khoi are in turn seen as a sub-group within the larger category of Khoisan peoples, which include both Khoi and San (Bushmen)’.

  255. 255.

    Constitutional Court Judgment, para 62.

  256. 256.

    For more, see Lehmann 2004, pp. 87–88.

  257. 257.

    See the reading of Art. 25(6)–(7) of the 1996 Constitution; and Arts. 1(iv), 2(1) and 3 of the Restitution of Land Rights Act 22 of 1994. Racial discrimination as a basis for land spoliation was clearly acknowledged in the Constitutional Court’s Judgment (para 109). Some analyses have presented the application of the concept of ‘aboriginal title’ in South Africa as complementary to limitations in the Restitution of Land Rights Act (such as the date and reason for land spoliation) but it is clear in the various judgments that the court relied on the said-Act to grant the claimant community its violated rights. See Bennett and Powell 1999, p. 450.

  258. 258.

    Lehmann 2004, pp. 89–91 discusses the flaws attached to application of the concept either to the sole Khoesan groups or to all black communities.

  259. 259.

    Lehmann 2004, pp. 87–91.

  260. 260.

    Ch. 14, s. 235.

  261. 261.

    Arts. 185–186 of the Constitution.

  262. 262.

    Henrard and Smis 2000, pp. 26–37.

  263. 263.

    Ibid., pp. 30–31.

  264. 264.

    Constitution of the Republic of Cameroon, Law No. 96-06 of 18 January 1996, to amend the Constitution of 2 June 1972 (in the official French text; Loi no. 96-06 du 18 janvier 1996 portant révision de la Constitution du 2 juin 1972, Journal officiel, 1996-01-30, Supplémentaire, pp. 5–30), para 2 of the preamble. For the English text, see http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Cameroon.pdf. Accessed 18 July 2007.

  265. 265.

    Information as of July 2007.

  266. 266.

    Tchoumba 2005, p. 6.

  267. 267.

    See Art. 51 of the original French text of the ‘Constitution de la République Démocratique du Congo’, http://www.presidentrdc.cd/constitution.html. Accessed 10 August 2007.

  268. 268.

    Art. 13 of the Constitution.

  269. 269.

    See ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, p. 16; IWGIA 2007, p. 505.

  270. 270.

    For a detailed account of the constitutional review process, see Bannon 2007, pp. 1834–1841.

  271. 271.

    See IWGIA 2006, p. 441.

  272. 272.

    For a text of the said memorandum, see http://www.ogiek.org/. Last accessed 3 August 2007.

  273. 273.

    Besides a number of references to rights attached to ‘indigenous knowledge’, the draft Constitution made reference to the latter in Art. 25(2)(k); and mostly in Art. 43 on ‘minorities and marginalized groups’, whose meaning is further elucidated in Art. 307. For this draft, see National Constitutional Conference, ‘The Draft Constitution of Kenya 2004’, http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/bomas2004.pdf. Accessed 6 August 2007.

  274. 274.

    Replaced by Arts. 26-28 of the Proposed New Constitution of Kenya, Kenya Gazette Supplement No. 63 reproduced at http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/KenyaProposed220805.pdf. Accessed 7 August 2007.

  275. 275.

    See Ndegwa 1997, p. 601.

  276. 276.

    Makoloo 2005, pp. 11–13.

  277. 277.

    See ibid. The report reproduces a 1989 classification of people living in Kenya into 56 broader categories based on ethnicity and other parameters. A number of groups, including some of those claiming indigenousness are not listed. That is the case with Awer, Endorois, Ilchamus, Gaaljecel, Malakote, Munyayaya, Ogiek, Pokot, Sabaot, Sengwer, Talai, Watta, Yakuu. See Human Rights Council 2007, para 21. Exploitation, for political ends, of ethnic classification of the country’s population led the government to drop it in the 1999 census. For the higher figure of 70 ethnic groups, Bannon 2007, p. 1853 note 152.

  278. 278.

    Percentage provided by IWGIA 2005, p. 452.

  279. 279.

    ACHPR and IWGIA 2006, pp. 15–16.

  280. 280.

    UN Doc. A/HRC/4/32/Add.3, para 5. The said-communities are: Awer, Boni, Borana, Burgi, Elmolo, Endorois, Ilchamus, Gaaljecel, Gabra, Maasai, Malakote, Munyayaya, Ogiek, Orma, Pokot, Rendille, Sabaot, Sakuye, Samburu, Sengwer, Somali, Talai,Turkana, Watta and Yakuu (the underlined groups do not appear in the admittedly 2005 non-exhaustive listing by the ACHPR and IWGIA).

  281. 281.

    Makoloo 2005, p.14.

  282. 282.

    On this figure, see CERD 2004b, para 2; MRG 1997, p. 516; Campbell 1999, pp. 106–110.

  283. 283.

    Arts. 12–13 of the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania of 1977 as amended, http://www.tanzania.go.tz/constitutionf.html. Accessed 9 August 2007.

  284. 284.

    Mamdani 2001, pp. 264 et seq.

  285. 285.

    For provisions thereon, see, para 2 of the preamble; and Arts. 9(2), 33(2), 54, 178(5) of the Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda, Official Gazette, Special issue, 4 June 2003, p. 119, as amended (Rwandan Constitution). Art. 33(2) provides for criminalization of divisions.

  286. 286.

    Art. 11 of the Constitution.

  287. 287.

    IWGIA 2002–2003, pp. 384–386.

  288. 288.

    Forest Peoples Programme (FPP) 2006.

  289. 289.

    ACHPR 2005, p. 42.

  290. 290.

    Suzman 2002, pp. 19–28.

  291. 291.

    Arts. 3, 10(2), and 23 of the Constitution.

  292. 292.

    Daniels 2004, p. 46.

  293. 293.

    Art. 19 of the Namibian Constitution, First Amendment Act No. 34 of 1998, Government Gazette No. 2014, 24 December 1998.

  294. 294.

    Art. 102(5) of the Constitution.

  295. 295.

    Traditional Authorities Act No. 25 of 2000, Government Gazette No. 2456, 22 December 2000.

  296. 296.

    See Daniels 2004, p. 46.

  297. 297.

    See Roy Sesana v. Attorney General, examined in the introductory chapter.

  298. 298.

    For the numerous celebratory media and other reports, see http://www.legalbrief.co.za/article.php?story=20061218154843558. Accessed 15 August 2007.

  299. 299.

    See Roy Sesana v. Attorney General, para 55 (Justice Dibotelo judgment).

  300. 300.

    Ibid., para 55, 1–2.

  301. 301.

    Ibid., paras 49–50 (Dibotelo judgment) and paras H. 6. 9–33 (Dow judgment) for an extensive discourse on constitutional and legal protection of San/Bushmen.

  302. 302.

    Art. 14(3)(c) of the Constitution of Botswana of 1966 as amended. On the idea of making the country’s Constitution ‘tribally neutral’, see DITSHWANELO.

  303. 303.

    Art. 15 of the Constitution.

  304. 304.

    Wildlife Conservation and National Parks Act No. 28 of 1992, Botswana Government Gazette, Supplement A, 11 December 1992, http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/bot4728.pdf. Accessed 16 August 2007.

  305. 305.

    ECOSOC 2002, para 16.

  306. 306.

    For the relevant texts, see Art. 3 of the Constitution of the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, JORADP No. 76, 8 December 1996, as amended by Law 02-03 of 10 April 2002, JORADP No. 25, 14 April 2002, http://www.joradp.dz/HFR/Consti.htm; Art. 1 of the Constitution of Egypt of 11 September 1971, as amended; Art. 1 of the Constitution of Libya, adopted on 11 Dec 1969 (ICL Document Status: 1992), http://www.servat.unibe.ch/law/icl/ly00000_.html; and para 1 of the preamble of the Constitution of Morocco (Dahir No. 1-96-157 du 7 octobre 1996 portant promulgation du texte de la Constitution révisée, Journal official No. 4420bis, 10 octobre, pp. 643–654), http://www.justice.gov.ma/fr/legislation/legislation_.aspx?ty=1&id_l=103#l103 ; Art. 1 of the Constitution of Tunisia of 1 June 1959, as amended, http://www.jurisitetunisie.com/tunisie/codes/constitution/const1005p.htm. Accessed 20 August 2007.

  307. 307.

    Art. 3(a) reads: ‘Tamazight is also national language’, and para 2 adds that ‘[t]he State works for its promotion and development in all its linguistic variations used all over the national territory’.

  308. 308.

    HRC 2006, para 143.

  309. 309.

    Situation by the end of 2008.

  310. 310.

    IWGIA 2007, p. 434.

  311. 311.

    International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), adopted by GA Res. 2106 (XX) of 21 December 1965, entry into force 4 January 1969.

  312. 312.

    See Tamazgha 2004, CERD 2004a, paras 6, 13–15.

  313. 313.

    See AFP.

  314. 314.

    CERD 2001, para 334.

  315. 315.

    MRG 1997, pp. 405–408; Maddy-Weitzman 2006, p. 73; ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, p. 19.

  316. 316.

    (UN)GA 2001, para 286.

  317. 317.

    MRG 1997, p. 19; ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, p. 19.

  318. 318.

    CERD 2003b, para 35.

  319. 319.

    Ibid.

  320. 320.

    CERD 2003a, para 8.

  321. 321.

    Niezen 2003, pp. 1–28.

  322. 322.

    These estimates are based on the various figures provided in the sections on African hunter-gatherers, pastoralists and others claimant indigenous groups such as the Amazigh of Northern Africa. For the African population, see Population, Resources, Environment and Development: The 2005 Revision, http://unstats.un.org/pop/dVariables/DRetrieval.aspx. Accessed 6 March 2007.

  323. 323.

    Bowen 2000, p. 14.

  324. 324.

    As rightly expressed by Woodburn 2001, p. 12.

  325. 325.

    See Rouland et al. 1996, p.14.

  326. 326.

    Woodburn 2001, pp. 12–13; Kenrick and Lewis 2004, p. 6.

  327. 327.

    It is clear in writings of such legal and/or political philosophers as Kymlicka that their theorizations are primarily concerned with societies of European settlement. See Kymlicka and Norman 2000, pp. 297–342, a fact clearly acknowledged in ch. 12 by J.T. Levy, Levy 2000, p. 318.

  328. 328.

    In this respect, see Suzman, reply in Kuper 2003, pp. 399–400; Hodgson 2002a, pp. 1041 et seq.; Sylvain 2005, pp. 354–370; but also Alfonso Martinez 1995; and somehow Thornberry 2002, pp. 37–40.

  329. 329.

    Woodburn 2001, p. 12. The author argues in favour of emphasizing the status as ‘first peoples’ meaning ‘first owners of land’ than indigenous peoples, perceived as applicable to all Africans.

  330. 330.

    UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/1996/2, para 64.

  331. 331.

    Burman 2003, p. 10.

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    Felix Mukwiza Ndahinda

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Ndahinda, F.M. (2011). Contextual Application of Indigenousness in Africa. In: Indigenousness in Africa. T.M.C. Asser Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-6704-609-1_3

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