Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

International Handbook of Adult Mortality pp 467–489Cite as

Coding and Classifying Causes of Death: Trends and International Differences

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: International Handbooks of Population ((IHOP,volume 2))

Abstract

Accurate, comparable, and timely cause-of-death information is important for assessing population health and for the planning, implementation, and evaluation of public-health strategies. Unfortunately, these criteria are not always met. Researchers need a clear understanding of how cause-of-death data are collected, classified and coded, and presented. Variations and changes in process and procedures can result in sometimes serious comparability problems and can dramatically affect the interpretation of national trends and international comparisons. This chapter provides an overview of the major issues related to the collection, classification, and coding of cause-specific mortality and how these issues relate to the analysis of cause-specific mortality trends and international comparisons.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   299.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   379.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   379.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Allison, D.B., K.R. Fontaine, J.E. Manson, J. Stevens, and T.B. VanItallie. 1999. “Annual Deaths Attributable to Obesity in the United States.” Journal of the American Medical Association 282:1530–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, R.N., A.M. Miniño, D.L. Hoyert, and H.M. Rosenberg. 2001. “Comparability of Cause of Death Between ICD-9 and ICD-10: Preliminary Estimates.” National Vital Statistics Reports 49(2):1–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). 2000. Causes of Death, Australia, 1999. Available at http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3303.0

  • Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). 2008. Causes of Death, Australia, 2006. Available at http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3303.0

  • Baiden, F., A. Bawah, S. Biai, F. Binka, T. Boerma, P. Byass, D. Chandramohan, S. Chatterji, C. Engmann, D. Greet, R. Jakob, K. Kahn, O. Kunii, A.D. Lopez, C.J.L. Murray, B. Nahlen, C. Rao, O. Sankoh, P.W. Setel, K. Shibuya, N. Soleman, L. Wright, and G. Yang. 2007. “Setting International Standards for Verbal Autopsy.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 85:570–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, R., J. Silvi, D. Ma Fat, A. L’Hours, and R. Laurenti. 2006. “A Method for Deriving Leading Causes of Death.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 84:297–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burton, J. and J. Underwood. 2007. “Clinical, Educational and Epidemiological Value of Autopsy.” The Lancet 369:1471–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byass, P. 2007. “Who Needs Cause-of-Death Data?” PLoS Medicine 4:e333. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040333.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2005. “Annual Smoking-Attributable Mortality, Years of Potential Life Lost, and Productivity Losses – United States, 1997—2001.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 54:625–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chandramohan, D., N. Soleman, K. Shibuya, and J. Porter. 2005. “Ethical Issues in the Application of Verbal Autopsies in Mortality Surveillance Systems.” Tropical Medicine and International Health 10:1087–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chariot, P., K. Witt, V. Pautot, R. Porcher, G. Thomas, E.S. Zafrani, and F. Lemaire. 2000. “Declining Autopsy Rate in a French Hospital: Physicians’ Attitudes to the Autopsy and Use of Autopsy Material in Research Publications.” Archives of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine 124:739–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coady, S.A., P.D. Sorlie, L.S. Cooper, A.R. Folsom, W.D. Rosamond, and D.E. Conwill. 2001. “Validation of Death Certificate Diagnosis for Coronary Heart Disease: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study.” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 54:40–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Couzin, J. 2005. “A Heavyweight Battle Over CDC’s Obesity Forecasts.” Science 308:770–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cullen, W. 1772. Synopsis Nosologiae Methodicae. Edinburgh, Kincaid & Creech.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalen, J.E. 1997. “The Moribund Autopsy: DNR or CPR?” Archives of Internal Medicine 157:1633.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danaei, G., E.L. Ding, D. Mozaffarian, B. Taylor, J. Rehm, C.J.L. Murray, and M. Ezzati. 2009. “The Preventable Causes of Death in the United States: Comparative Risk Assessment of Dietary, Lifestyle, and Metabolic Risk Factors.” PLoS Medicine 6:e1000058.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorn, H.F. and I.M. Moriyama. 1964. “Uses and Significance of Multiple Cause Tabulations for Mortality Statistics.” American Journal of Public Health 54:400–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, H.L. and W. Shackley. 1944. “Comparison of Cause of Death Assignments by the 1929 and 1939 Revisions of the International List: Deaths in the United States, 1940.” Vital Statistics – Special Reports 19(14):153–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Amico, M., E. Agozzino, A. Biagino, A. Simonetti, and P. Marinelli. 1999. “Ill-defined and Multiple Causes on Death Certificates – A Study of Misclassification in Mortality Statistics.” European Journal of Epidemiology 15:141–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eurostat. 2008. E-learning Website for Death Certification (Online Tutorial). Available at http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/health/deathcert/

  • Faust, M.M. and A.B. Dolman. 1963. “Comparability of Mortality Statistics for the Fifth and Sixth Revisions: United States, 1950.” Vital Statistics – Special Reports 51(2):131–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faust, M.M. and A.B. Dolman. 1964. “Comparability Ratios Based on Mortality Statistics for the Fifth and Sixth Revisions: United States, 1950.” Vital Statistics – Special Reports 51(3):179–245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faust, M.M. and A.B. Dolman. 1965. “Comparability of Mortality Statistics for the Sixth and Seventh Revisions: United States, 1958.” Vital Statistics – Special Reports 51(4):247–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Federal Health Reporting. 2008. Health in Germany, 2006. Berlin, Federal Statistical Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flegal, K.M., B.L. Graubard, D.F. Williamson, and M.H. Gail. 2005. “Excess Deaths Associated with Underweight, Overweight, and Obesity.” Journal of the American Medical Association 293:1861–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frova, L., M. Pace, and M. Pappagallo. 2010. “Analisi del bridge coding Icd-9-Icd-10 per le statistiche di mortalità per causa in Italia.” Metodi e norme (Forthcoming).

    Google Scholar 

  • Geran, L., P. Tully, P. Wood, and B. Thomas. 2005. Comparability of ICD-10 and ICD-9 for Mortality Statistics in Canada. Ottawa, ON, Statistics Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gittelsohn, A. and P. Royston. 1982. “Annotated Bibliography of Cause-of-Death Validation Studies, 1958–80.” Vital and Health Statistics 2(89):1–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glenn, D. 1999. “Description of the National Center for Health Statistics Software Systems and Demonstrations.” In K. Peters (ed.), Proceedings of the International Collaborative Effort on Automating Mortality Statistics, Volume 1, pp. 6-1–6-13. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorina, Y. and H. Lentzner. 2008. “Multiple Causes of Death in Old Age.” Aging Trends No. 9. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ahcd/agingtrends/09causes.htm

  • Graunt, J. 1662. Natural and Political Observations in a Following Index and Made Upon the Bills of Mortality. London, Roycroft.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths, C., C. Rooney, and A. Brock. 2005. “Leading Causes of Death in England and Wales – How Would We Group Causes?” Health Statistics Quarterly 28:6–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grigg, B., R.G. Brooks, S. Lieb, and M. Grigg. 2001. “Coding Changes and Apparent HIV/AIDS Mortality Trends in Florida, 1999.” Journal of the American Medical Association 286:1839.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guralnick, L. 1966. “Some Problems in the Use of Multiple Causes of Death.” Journal of Chronic Diseases 19:979–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hadley, E. 1992. “Cause of Death among the Oldest Old.” In R.M. Suzman, D.P. Willis, and K.G. Manton (eds.), The Oldest Old, pp. 183–198. New York, NY, Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanzlick, R. 1994. The Medical Cause of Death Manual. Northfield, IL, College of American Pathologists.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanzlick, R. 1996. “The Relevance of Queries and Coding Procedures to the Writing of Cause-of-Death Statements.” American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology 17:319–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanzlick, R. 2001. “The Autopsy, Medicine, and Mortality Statistics.” Vital and Health Statistics 3(32):1–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanzlick, R. and P. Baker. 1998. “Institutional Autopsy Rates.” Archives of Internal Medicine 158:1171–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrington, D.E. and E.A. Sayre. 2007. Death of the Autopsy: Is Better Imaging Technology or Cost Cutting to Blame? Social Science Research Network Working Paper. Available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1264039

  • Hays, J.N. 1998. The Burdens of Disease: Epidemics and Human Response in Western History. New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heron, M.P. 2007. “Deaths: Leading Causes for 2004.” National Vital Statistics Reports 56(5):1–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heron, M.P., D.L. Hoyert, S.L. Murphy, J. Xu, K.D. Kochanek, and B. Tejada-Vera. 2009. “Deaths: Final Data for 2006.” National Vital Statistics Reports 57(14):1–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, K. 2006. “Making Deaths Count.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 84:161–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins, D.D., J.A. Grant-Worley, and T.L. Bollinger. 1989. “Survey of Cause-of-Death Query Criteria Used by State Vital Statistics Programs in the U.S. and the Efficacy of the Criteria Used by the Oregon Vital Statistics Program.” American Journal of Public Health 79:570–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoyert, D.L. and A. Lima. 2005. “Querying of Death Certificates in the United States.” Public Health Reports 120:1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoyert, D.L., H.M. Rosenberg, and M.F. MacDorman. 2000. “Effect of Changes in Death Certificate Format on Cause-Specific Mortality Trends, United States, 1979–92.” In M.P. Coleman and P. Aylin (eds.), Death Certification and Mortality Statistics: An International Perspective, Series Studies on Medical and Population Subjects No. 64, pp. 47–58. London, The Stationary Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Institute of International Statistics. 1900. Bulletin of the Institute of International Statistics 12:280.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iribarren, C., R.S. Crow, P.J. Hannan, D.R. Jacobs, and R.V. Luepker. 1998. “Validation of Death Certificate Diagnosis of Out-of-Hospital Sudden Cardiac Death.” American Journal of Cardiology 82:50–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Israel, R.A. 1990. “Automation of Mortality Data Coding and Processing in the United States of America.” World Health Statistics Quarterly 43:259–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Israel, R.A., H.M. Rosenberg, and L.R. Curtin. 1986. “Analytical Potential for Multiple Cause-of-Death Data.” American Journal of Epidemiology 124:161–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Italian National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT). 2003. Manual on Certification of Causes of Death in Europe. Available at http://circa.europa.eu/Public/irc/dsis/health/library?l=/methodologiessandsdatasc/causessofsdeath/training_certification

  • Janssen, T.A. 1940. “Importance of Tabulating Multiple Causes of Death.” American Journal of Public Health 30:871–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jewell, D. 2007. “Death Certification.” British Journal of General Practice 57:583.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jha, P., V. Gajalakshmi, P.C. Gupta, R. Kumar, P. Mony, N. Dhingra, and R. Peto. 2006. “Prospective Study of One Million Deaths in India: Rationale, Design, and Validation Results.” PLoS Medicine 3:e18. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030018.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johansson, L.A 2000. “Changes in Swedish Death Certification Practice – What Is the Cause?” In M.P. Coleman and P. Aylin (eds.), Death Certification and Mortality Statistics: An International Perspective, Series Studies on Medical and Population Subjects No. 64, pp. 31–38. London, The Stationary Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johansson, L.A. 2001a. “Swedish MIKADO Coding System.” In A.M. Miniño and H.M. Rosenberg (eds.), Proceedings of the International Collaborative Effort on Automating Mortality Statistics, Volume 2, pp. 27–45. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johansson, L.A. 2001b. “Mortality Bridge Coding ICD-9/ICD-10: Preliminary Results from Statistics Sweden’s Study.” In A.M. Miniño and H.M. Rosenberg (eds.), Proceedings of the International Collaborative Effort on Automating Mortality Statistics, Volume 2, pp. 135–144. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johansson, L.A. and R. Westerling. 2002. “Comparing Hospital Discharge Records with Death Certificates: Can the Differences be Explained?” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 56:301–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johansson, L.A., R. Westerling, and H.M. Rosenberg. 2006. “Methodology of Studies Evaluating Death Certificate Accuracy Were Flawed.” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 59:125–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jougla E., G. Pavillon, F. Rossollin, M. De Smedt, and J. Bonte. 1998. “Improvement of the Quality and Comparability of Causes-of-Death Statistics Inside the European Community. EUROSTAT Task Force on Causes of Death Statistics.” Revue d’épidémiologie et de santé publique 46:447–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimura, M., K. Takemura, H. Ueda, H. Takeuchi, R. Agematsu, and T. Tamura. 2006. “Automated Coding of Diagnostic Expressions and Selection of Underlying Cause of Death (ACSEL) System in Japan.” In A.M. Miniño and H.M. Rosenberg (eds.), Proceedings of the International Collaborative Effort on Automating Mortality Statistics, Volume 3, pp. 18–19. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, G. and Y. Lu. 2008. “Verbal Autopsy Methods with Multiple Causes of Death.” Statistical Science 23:78–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kircher, T. and R.E. Anderson. 1987. “Cause of Death: Proper Completion of the Death Certificate.” Journal of the American Medical Association 258:349–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kircher, T., J. Nelson, and H. Burdo. 1985. “The Autopsy as a Measure of Accuracy of the Death Certificate.” New England Journal of Medicine 313:1263–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klebba, A.J. and A.B. Dolman. 1975. “Comparability of Mortality Statistics for the Seventh and Eighth Revisions of the International Classification of Diseases.” Vital and Health Statistics 2(66):1–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klebba, A.J. and J.H. Scott. 1980. “Estimates of Selected Comparability Ratios Based on Dual Coding of 1976 Death Certificates by the Eighth and Ninth Revisions of the International Classification of Diseases.” Monthly Vital Statistics Report 28(11):1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kock, K.F., V. Vestergaard, M. Hardt-Madsen, and E. Garne. 2003. “Declining Autopsy Rates in Stillbirths and Infant Deaths: Results from Funen County, Denmark, 1986–96.” Journal of Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine 13:403–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Korean National Statistical Office. 2006. Annual Report on the Cause of Death Statistics. Seoul, Korean National Statistical Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, A., D.K. Rout, P. Gupta, and U. Singh. 2007. Mortality Statistics in India, 2006. New Delhi, Central Bureau of Health Intelligence. Available online at http://www.cbhidghs.nic.in/

  • Lahti, R.A. and A. Penttilä. 2001. “The Validity of Death Certificates: Routine Validation of Death Certification and its Effects on Mortality Statistics.” Forensic Science International 115:15–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lahti, R.A. and A. Penttilä. 2003. “Cause-of-Death Query in Validation of Death Certification by Expert Panel; Effects on Mortality Statistics in Finland, 1995.” Forensic Science International 131:113–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laurenti, R. 2006. “Brazilian Diagnosis Coding System.” In A.M. Miniño and H.M. Rosenberg (eds.), Proceedings of the International Collaborative Effort on Automating Mortality Statistics, Volume 3, pp. 16–17. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laurenti, R., P. Aylin, and M.P. Coleman. 2000. “Accuracy of Statements of the Cause of Death on Death Certificates and the International Comparability of Mortality Statistics.” In M.P. Coleman and P. Aylin (eds.), Death Certification and Mortality Statistics: An International Perspective, Series Studies on Medical and Population Subjects No. 64, pp. 1–9. London, The Stationary Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liao, Y., D.L. McGee, G. Cao, and R.S. Cooper. 2000. “Alcohol Mortality: Findings from the National Health Interview Survey (1998 and1990).” American Journal of Epidemiology 151:651–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lu, T.H., P.Y. Hsu, C. Bjorkenstam, and R.N. Anderson. 2006. “Certifying Diabetes-Related Cause-of-Death: A Comparison of Inappropriate Certification Statements in Sweden, Taiwan and the USA.” Diabetologia 49:2878–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lu, T.H. and S.M. Huang. 2002. “Querying the Ill-Defined Stroke Diagnoses on Death Certificates and Their Effects on Type-Specific Mortality in Taiwan.” Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Sciences 18:182–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDorman, M.F. and B.L. Hudson. 1992. “Advance Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1989.” Monthly Vital Statistics Report 40(8):Supplement 2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manton, K.G. and E. Stallard. 1982. “Temporal Trends in U.S. Multiple Cause of Death Mortality Rates, 1968–1977.” Demography 19:527–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mathers, C.D., D. Ma Fat, M. Inoue, C. Rao, and A.D. Lopez. 2005. “Counting the Dead and What They Died from: An Assessment of the Global Status of Cause of Death Data.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 83:171–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGinnis, J.M. and W.H. Foege. 1993. “Actual Causes of Death in the United States.” Journal of the American Medical Association 270:2207–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKenzie K., S. Walker, and S. Tong. 2001. “Assessment of the Impact of the Change from Manual to Automated Coding on Mortality Statistics in Australia.” Health Information Management Journal 30(3). Available online at http://www.himaa.org.au/reviewed_papers/HIMJ303.htm

  • Miniño, A.M. (ed.). 2009. Proceedings of the International Collaborative Effort on Automating Mortality Statistics, Volume 4. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miniño, A.M., R.N. Anderson, L.A. Fingerhut, M.A. Boudreault, and M. Warner. 2002. “Deaths: Injuries, 2002.” National Vital Statistics Reports 54(10):1–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mokdad, A.H., J.S. Marks, D.F. Stroup, and J.L. Gerberding. 2004. “Actual Causes of Death in the United States, 2000.” Journal of the American Medical Association 291:1238–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moriyama, I.M. 1989. “Problems in the Measurement of Accuracy of Cause-of-Death Statistics.” American Journal of Public Health 79:1349–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moriyama, I.M., R.M. Loy, and A.H.T. Robb-Smith. 2011. History of the Statistical Classification of Diseases and Causes of Death. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics (Forthcoming).

    Google Scholar 

  • Muhlhauser, I., P.T. Sawicki, M. Blank, H. Overmann, B. Richter, and M. Berger. 2002. “Reliability of Causes of Death in Persons with Type I Diabetes.” Diabetologia 45:1490–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, C.J.L., A.D. Lopez, J.T. Barofsky, C. Bryson-Cahn, and R. Lozano. 2007b. “Estimating Population Cause-Specific Mortality Fractions from In-Hospital Mortality: Validation of a New Method.” PLoS Medicine 4:e326. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, C.J.L., A.D. Lopez, D.M. Feehan, S.T. Peter, and G. Yang. 2007a. “Validation of the Symptom Pattern Method for Analyzing Verbal Autopsy Data.” PLoS Medicine 4:e327. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040327.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, C.J.L., A.D. Lopez, and S. Wibulpolprasert. 2004. “Monitoring Global Health: Time for New Solutions.” BMJ 329:1096–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). 1968. Eighth Revision of the International Classification of Diseases, Adapted for Use in the United States. Washington, DC, Public Health Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). 1984. “Multiple Causes of Death in the United States.” Monthly Vital Statistics Report 32(10):Supplement 2.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). 1988. Instruction Manual, Part 9: ICD-9 Underlying Cause-of-Death Lists for Tabulating Mortality Statistics, Notice of Change No. 5, March 1988. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). 2004. Physician’s Handbook on Medical Certification of Death. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). 2007. Instruction Manual, Part 20: ICD-10 Cause-of-Death Querying, 2007. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). 2008a. Instruction Manual, Part 2a: Instructions for Classifying the Underlying Cause-of-Death, ICD-10, 2008. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). 2008b. Instruction Manual, Part 2b: Instructions for Classifying the Multiple Causes of Death, ICD-10, 2008. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Committee on Vital and Health Statistics (NCVHS). 1989. Report of the Workshop on Improving Cause-of-Death Statistics. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Committee on Vital and Health Statistics (NCVHS). 1991. Report of the Second Workshop on Improving Cause-of-Death Statistics. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (NYC). 2008. Improving Cause of Death Reporting (online tutorial). Available at http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/media/video/icdr/

  • Office for National Statistics (ONS). 2008. Mortality Statistics: Deaths Registered in 2007 (England and Wales). London, Office for National Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohmi, K. and A. Yamamoto. 2000. “Changes in Mortality Statistics in Japan, 1995: The Effects of Implementation of ICD-10 and Revision of the Death Certificate.” In M.P. Coleman and P. Aylin. (eds.), Death Certification and Mortality Statistics: An International Perspective, Series Studies on Medical and Population Subjects No. 64, pp. 21–27. London, The Stationary Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ortega Garcia, J.A. 2006. “Automation of Cause-of-Death Coding in Mexico.” In A.M. Miniño and H.M. Rosenberg (eds.), Proceedings of the International Collaborative Effort on Automating Mortality Statistics, Volume 3, pp. 20–22. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pace, M., S. Bruzzone, S. Marchetti, F. Grippo, S. Cinque, G. di Fraia, M. Pappagallo, S. Pennazza, S. Sindoni, and L. Frova. 2005. “A Training Package on Certification of Causes of Death for European Professionals.” European Journal of Public Health 15(Supplement 1):104–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pace, M. and F. Grippo. 2006. “Quality in Causes of Death Certification is a Key Point for Better Mortality Data: The Italian Experience.” European Journal of Public Health 16(Supplement 1):21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavillon, G. 2001. “French Automated Coding System: Styx.” In A.M. Miniño and H.M. Rosenberg (eds.), Proceedings of the International Collaborative Effort on Automating Mortality Statistics, Volume 2, pp. 50–56. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavillon, G., J. Boileau, G. Renaud, H. Lefèvre, and E. Jougla. 2005. “Conséquences des changements de codage des causes médicales de décès sur les données nationales de mortalité en France à partir de l’année 2000.” Bulletin épidémiologique hebdomadaire 4:13–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavillon, G., E. Jougla, L. Chérié-Challine, and F. Hatton. 2000. “Randomised Comparison of Death Certification with and Without Guidelines.” In M.P. Coleman and P. Aylin (Eds.), Death Certification and Mortality Statistics: An International Perspective, Series Studies on Medical and Population Subjects No. 64, pp. 10–20. London, The Stationary Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peacock, S.J., D. Machin, C.E.H. Duboulay, and N. Kirkham. 1988. “The Autopsy: A Useful Tool or an Old Relic?” Journal of Pathology 156:9–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Percy, C., E. Stanek, and L.C. Gloeckler. 1981. “Accuracy of Cancer Death Certificates and Its Effect on Cancer Mortality Statistics.” American Journal of Public Health 71:242–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quigley M.A., D. Chandramohan, and L.C. Rodrigues. 1999. “Diagnostic Accuracy of Physician Review, Expert Algorithms, and Data-Derived Algorithms in Adult Verbal Autopsies.” International Journal of Epidemiology 28:1081–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quigley, M.A., D. Chandramohan, P. Setel, F. Binka and L.C. Rodrigues. 2000. “Validity of Data-Derived Algorithms for Ascertaining Causes of Adult Death in Two African Sites Using Verbal Autopsy.” Tropical Medicine and International Health 5:33–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Registrar General of England and Wales. 1839. First Annual Report of the Registrar General of Births, Deaths and Marriages in England. London, The Stationary Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Registrar General of Scotland. 2001. “The Introduction of ICD10 for Cause of Death Coding in Scotland”, Appendix 2. In Annual Report of the Registrar General of Births, Deaths and Marriages for Scotland, 2000, pp. 157–73. Edinburgh, General Register Office for Scotland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rooney, C. 1999. “Implementing Automated Coding in England and Wales: How it Affected Mortality Statistics.” In K. Peters (ed.), Proceedings of the International Collaborative Effort on Automating Mortality Statistics, Volume 1, pp. 8-1–8-19. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rooney, C. and T. Devis. 1996. “Mortality Trends by Cause of Death in England and Wales 1980–94: The Impact of Introducing Automated Cause Coding and Related Changes in 1993.” Population Trends 86:29–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rooney, C., C. Griffiths, and L. Cook. 2002. “The Implementation of ICD-10 for Cause of Death Coding – Some Preliminary Results from the Bridge Coding Study.” Health Statistics Quarterly 13:31–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, H.M. 1989. “Improving Cause-of-Death Statistics.” American Journal of Public Health 79:563–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, H.M. 1999. “International Collaborative Effort on Automating Mortality Statistics: Background and Issues.” In K. Peters (ed.), Proceedings of the International Collaborative Effort on Automating Mortality Statistics, Volume 1, pp. 1-1–1-16. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, H.M. and R. Anderson. 2004. Leading Causes of Death: A Tool for Health Assessment. WHO Family of International Classifications Network Meeting, Iceland, October 2004. WHOFIC/04.088. Available at http://www.nordclass.uu.se

  • Ruzicka, L.T. and A.D. Lopez. 1990. “The Use of Cause of Death Statistics for Health Situation Assessment: National and International Experiences.” World Health Statistics Quarterly 46:249–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rückinger, S., R. von Kries, and A.M. Toschke. 2009. “An Illustration of and Programs Estimating Attributable Fractions in Large Scale Surveys Considering Multiple Risk Factors.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 9:7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sauvages de la Croix, F.B. 1763. Nosologia methodica sistens morborum classes, genera et species, Juxta’ Sydenhami mentem et botanicorum ordinem. Amsterdam, Sumptibus Fratrum de Tournes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sehdev, A.E.S. and G.M. Hutchins. 2001. “Problems with Proper Completion and Accuracy of the Cause-of-Death Statement.” Archives of Internal Medicine 161:277–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selik, R.M., R.N. Anderson, M.T. McKenna, and H.M. Rosenberg. 2003. “Increase in HIV Deaths Due to Changes in Rules for Selecting Underlying Cause of Death.” Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 32:62–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Setel, P.W., C. Rao, Y. Hemed, D.R. Whiting, G. Yang, D. Chandramohan, K.G.M.M. Alberti, and A.D. Lopez. 2006. “Core Verbal Autopsy Procedures with Comparative Validation Results from Two Countries.” PLoS Medicine 3:e268. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Setel, P.W., O. Sankoh, C. Rao, V.A. Velkoff, C. Mathers, Y. Gonghuan, Y. Hemed, P. Jha., and A.D. Lopez. 2005. “Sample Registration of Vital Events with Verbal Autopsy: A Renewed Commitment to Measuring and Monitoring Vital Statistics.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 83:611–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharma, B.R. 2008. “Cause-of-Death Data in Public Health Planning – An Overview.” Journal of the Indian Academy of Forensic Medicine 30:101–3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharp, G.B., J.B. Cologne, T. Fukuhara, H. Itakura, M. Yamamoto, and S. Tokuoka. 2001. “Temporal Changes in Liver Cancer Incidence Rates in Japan: Accounting for Death Certificate Inaccuracies and Improving Diagnostic Techniques.” International Journal of Cancer 93:751–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shojiana, K.G. and E.C. Burton. 2004. “The Persistent Value of the Autopsy.” American Family Physician 69:2540–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shojiana K.G., E.C. Burton, K.M. McDonald, and L. Goldman. 2002. The Autopsy as an Outcome and Performance Measure. Rockville, MD, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shultz, J.M., T.E. Novotny, D.P. Rice. 1991. “Quantifying the Disease Impact of Cigarette Smoking with SAMMEC II Software.” Public Health Reports 106:326–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sibai, A.M. 2004. “Mortality Certification and Cause of Death Reporting in Developing Countries.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 82:83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sington, J.D. and B.J. Cottrell. 2002. “Analysis of the Sensitivity of Death Certificates in 440 Hospital Deaths: A Comparison with Necropsy Findings.” Journal of Clinical Pathology 55:499–502.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sirken, M.G., H.M. Rosenberg, F.M. Chevarley, and L.R. Curtin. 1987. “The Quality of Cause-of-Death Statistics.” American Journal of Public Health 77:137–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soleman, N., D. Chandramohan, and K. Shibuya. 2006. “Verbal Autopsy: Current Practices and Challenges.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 84:239–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stallard, E. 2002. “Underlying and Multiple Cause Mortality at Advanced Ages: United States 1980–1998.” North American Actuarial Journal 6(3):64–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stallard, E. 2006. “Disease Patterns in Multiple-Cause Data at Advanced Ages: United States 1980–1998.” In A.M. Miniño and H.M. Rosenberg (eds.), Proceedings of the International Collaborative Effort on Automating Mortality Statistics, Volume 3, pp. 52–76. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Start, R.D., J.A. Firth, F. Macgillivray, and S.S. Cross. 1995. “Have Declining Necropsy Rates Reduced the Contribution of Necropsy to Medical Research?” Journal of Clinical Pathology 48:402–4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Statistics Bureau. 2009. Japan Statistical Yearbook, 2009. Tokyo, Statistics Bureau.

    Google Scholar 

  • Statistics Canada. 2007. Causes of Death. Available at http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/84-208-x/84-208-x2007001-eng.htm

  • Statistics Norway. 2008. Causes of Death, 2006. Available at http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/03/01/10/dodsarsak_en/

  • Stevenson, R.B. 2001. The Quantification of Drug-Caused Mortality and Morbidity in Australia, 1998. Canberra, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare.

    Google Scholar 

  • Statistics Sweden. 2008. Causes of Death, 2006. Stockholm, Socialstyrelsen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tardon, A.G., J. Zaplana, R. Hernandez, and A. Cueto. 1995. “Usefulness of the Codification of Multiple Causes of Death in Mortality Statistics.” International Journal of Epidemiology 24:1132–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1900. Manual of International Classification of Causes of Death (ICD-1). Washington, DC, Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1914. Index of Joint Causes of Death. Washington, DC, Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1925. Manual of Joint Causes of Death.2nd ed. Washington, DC, Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1945. “Classifications of Terms and Comparability of Titles Through Five Revisions of the International List of Causes of Death.” Vital Statistics – Special Reports 19(13):147–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations. 1991. Handbook of Vital Statistics Systems and Methods. Studies in Methods, Series F, No 35. New York, NY, United Nations.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Buren, G.H. 1940. “Some Things You Can’t Prove By Mortality Statistics.” Vital Statistics – Special Reports 12:13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Villar, J. and L. Perez-Mendez. 2007. “Evaluating an Educational Intervention to Improve the Accuracy of Death Certification among Trainees from Various Specialties.” BMC Health Services Research 7:183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, M.J. and A.K. Guha. 2001. “Declining Clinical Autopsy Rates Versus Increasing Medicolegal Autopsy Rates in Halifax, Nova Scotia: Why the Difference? A Historical Perspective.” Archives of Pathological Laboratory Medicine 125:924–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woolsey, T.D. 1978. “Cause-of-Death Data.” Statistical Notes for Health Planners, No. 6. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (WHO). 1948. Manual of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death, Sixth Revision. Geneva, World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (WHO). 1977. Manual of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death, Ninth Revision. Geneva, World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (WHO). 2004a. International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision, Volume 1, 2nd Ed. Geneva, World Health Organization. Available at http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/

  • World Health Organization (WHO). 2004b. International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision, Volume 2, 2nd ed. Geneva, World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (WHO). 2007. Verbal Autopsy Standards: Ascertaining and Attributing Causes of Death. Geneva, World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (WHO). 2008. The Global Burden of Disease: 2004 Update. Geneva, World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Mortality Statistics Branch, Division of Vital Statistics, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Hyattsville, MD, 20782, USA

    Robert N. Anderson

Authors
  1. Robert N. Anderson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Robert N. Anderson .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Dept. Sociology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, 80309-0327, Colorado, USA

    Richard G. Rogers

  2. Davis School of Gerontology, Andrus Gerontology Center, University of Southern California, McClintock Ave. 3715, Los Angeles, 90089-0191, California, USA

    Eileen M. Crimmins

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Anderson, R.N. (2011). Coding and Classifying Causes of Death: Trends and International Differences. In: Rogers, R., Crimmins, E. (eds) International Handbook of Adult Mortality. International Handbooks of Population, vol 2. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9996-9_22

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation