Abstract
The technology of harnessing hydropower is regarded as the pioneer among the renewable energies. Electricity generation from hydropower was in its maturation phase as early as the mid-twentieth century. The degree of technical sophistication depended on the framework conditions at the particular location (amount of water, gradient, capacity range). With environmental awareness increasing in the 1970s and 1980s, public response to hydropower, which had hitherto been positive, began to change, with concerns regarding the environmental effects on rivers and streams growing. In response to this, the subsequent phase saw corrective measures that were intended to allow for the implementation of hydropower use under ecologically compatible conditions. This means that the modernization of hydropower plants is subject to noticeable restrictions with regard to the limited ecologically compatible potential at the respective locations. Species protection as codified in European law was taken into account to a greater degree in approval decisions as a result of EU legislation being implemented in national law.
The current state of the technical development is characterized by incremental innovations in the fields of electric current transformation and system control technology. Longevity of the technical components, long replacement cycles and long approval periods contribute to the fact that processes of modernization in hydropower use occur within long time intervals.
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Notes
- 1.
At first with the use of low and medium pressure power plants, from 1827 (Fourneyron turbines) with high-pressure hydropower plants as well.
- 2.
In Germany, plants with capacities of up to 1 MW count as small hydro, plants with >1 MW as large hydro.
- 3.
Heimerl (2009, pers. comm.) describes this process as “away from the clanking mills – on to the technological structure.”
- 4.
The term “turbine” (from the Latin word “turbo,” whirlwind) was coined in 1824 in connection with a public competition held by the Societé d’Encouragement pour l’Industrie Nationale.
- 5.
In the 1940s an interesting modification of the Kaplan turbine was developed in Germany. This consisted of a conventional Kaplan turbine that was situated in a streamlined casing downstream of a generator. Both units were built on a horizontal plane into horizontal tunnels of the power plant.
- 6.
It now belongs to E.ON Wasserkraft GmbH in Landshut.
- 7.
Heimerl (2009, pers. comm.) cites the Rheinfelden hydropower plant built in 1896 as a typical example for this period. In the 1970s awareness of hydropower plants and, with it, the style of hydropower plants changed; influenced by the increasingly powerful environmental awareness, the Säckingen hydropower plant, for example, was designed as a low-construction-type, very compact structure. At that time people’s associations with hydropower were no longer unambiguously positive (ibid.).
- 8.
Approximated 0.025 USD/kWh at the time. www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/projects/currency.htm#infcalc (accessed 29 March 2010).
- 9.
The German Institute for Economic Research (Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung – DIW) & The Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research (Fraunhofer-Institut für System – und Innovationsforschung – ISI).
- 10.
The sources for the legal information used in this chapter are given in the Index of Legal Sources.
- 11.
Operators must prepare a Landscape Management Plan (Landschaftspflegerischer Begleitplan) that describes the adverse effects on the ecosystem and mitigation requirements (Klinski 2005, 78).
- 12.
The compensation model is based on a model for the feed-in of surplus electricity from the co-generation of heat and electricity to which the electricity industry agreed (BT-Drs. 11/5025, 5).
- 13.
Under the Regulation on the Favorable Tax Treatment of Hydropower Plants Insurance Agreement (Verordnung über die steuerliche Begünstigung von Wasserkraftwerken Versicherungsvertrag – WasKwV) hydropower plants received preferential treatment in conjunction with corporate taxes and income taxes, property taxes and business taxes for 20 years after the start of operations (BT-Drs. 10/4272). Specifically, this was intended to benefit plants that went into operation by 1990.
- 14.
Source: BR-Drs. 705/95.
- 15.
According to Heimerl (2009, pers. comm.) hydraulic structures depreciated over a period of between 50 and 80 years.
- 16.
See http://www.wasserkraft-thueringen.de/Wasserkraftanlagen/ (accessed August 04, 2009).
- 17.
The State Association of Bavarian Hydropower Plants (Landesverband Bayerischer Wasserkraftwerke) currently has around 600 members and exerts substantial influence on association policy at the federal level.
- 18.
OBAG, established in 1908, was the largest regional power supplier in Bavaria in terms of territory covered, supplying the Upper Palatinate, Lower Bavaria and parts of Upper Bavaria. More than 20% of its electricity came from hydropower. In 2001, it merged with other regional power suppliers to become E.ON Bayern AG.
- 19.
Regulation No. By 2/52 on Regulation of the Price of Electricity for Small Hydropower Plants (Verordnung Nr. By 2/52 zur Regelung des Strompreises für Kleinwasserkraftwerke) of March 03, 1952 (Bavarian State Gazette [Bayerischer Staatsanzeiger] of March 03, 1952 p. 3), last amended by a regulation dated February 02, 1963 (Gesetz und Verordnungs Blatt, GVBl. p. 31).
- 20.
The state association also worked actively on behalf of the subsidy program of the Ministry of Economics for the expansion and reactivation of hydropower plants sites. It made substantial contributions to the Residual Water Guide (Restwasserleitfaden), which was published by the Bavarian State Ministry for Development and Environmental Affairs in 1996 and 1999.
- 21.
The BDW is the umbrella association of the states’ hydropower coalitions. It was a founding member in the German Renewable Energy Federation (Bundesverband Erneuerbare Energien – BEE), and is a member of the European Small Hydropower Association (ESHA) and of the European Renewable Energies Federation (EREF).
- 22.
From 6,000 in 1917 to 12,600 in 1942.
- 23.
See http://www.ossberger.de/ (accessed August 04, 2009).
- 24.
See http://www.wkv-ag.com/ (accessed August 04, 2009).
- 25.
For more information see Section 8.3.2.5.
- 26.
For a presentation of the conflict of aims see UBA (1998).
- 27.
Cf. Index of Legal Sources.
- 28.
See Staiß (2000, I–33).
- 29.
Directive 92/43/EEC of May 21, 1992. Cf. Index of Legal Sources.
- 30.
http://www.wasserkraft-thueringen.de/ (accessed August 04, 2009).
- 31.
Implementation of the Habitat Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the Conservation of Wild Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora) occurred through the expansion of the BNatSchG to include §§ 19–21 of that act (cf. Index of Legal Sources).
- 32.
FFH is the abbreviation of Flora–Fauna–Habitat.
- 33.
See Klinski (2005, 78) on the conduct of impact assessments after the Habitats Directive and – in the event of non-compatibility – reasons for exceptions that must be present pursuant to BNatSchG in order to acquire a permit despite that incompatibility.
- 34.
Cf. Index of Legal Sources.
- 35.
The term Außenbereich comes from German zoning law and describes a category of areas which are not within the area designated by a binding land-use plan and which are not part of the already built-up area (Innenbereich); see Section 35(3) of the Federal Building Code (Baugesetzbuch – BauGB).
- 36.
Electricity Feed-in Act (Stromeinspeisungsgesetz – StrEG) of December 07, 1990, Federal Law Gazette (Bundesgesetzblatt – BGBl.) Part I p. 2633. See Section 3.7.1 for discussion in more depth.
- 37.
Cent in this section always refers to euro cent.
- 38.
Berchem (2006) refers to a minimum of 13.84 pfennigs paid for each kilowatt-hour of green electricity fed into the grid.
- 39.
See Article 5 of the act dated July 19, 1994 (Federal Law Gazette I, p. 1622), see Index of Legal Sources.
- 40.
Deutsche Ausgleichsbank, now integrated within the Reconstruction Loan Corporation known as the Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau.
- 41.
European Recovery Fund, also known as “Marshall-Plan”.
- 42.
It was discontinued consolidating the budget in April 2005.
- 43.
Conservation groups argued that the negative environmental impacts caused by hydropower exploitation were not appropriate compared to gain of electricity production which is only marginal (Mayr 1996, 190).
- 44.
The parliamentary group of the SPD also objected an amendment of the wording granting privileges to hydropower utilization in the Act on Managing Water Resources.
- 45.
In the case of Francis turbines (which are of no significance to small hydropower, however) a considerable increase in efficiency was achieved with the use of permanent magnet-excited synchronous generators with innovative converter technology.
- 46.
For comparison: in 1984 hydropower accounted for a 4.7% share of overall electricity generation.
- 47.
Source: BMU 2007a , 14–15.
- 48.
Voith Siemens HydroPower Generation GmbH & Co. KG, Heidenheim.
- 49.
For instance, the Zschopau river has 83 weir systems on a 120 km stretch of flowing water alone. That means that on the average there is a weir installed every 1.4 km. http://www.bund-sachsen.de/ (accessed August 06, 2009).
- 50.
For impacts barriers on the habitats in rivers and streams see Dumont (2006, 122–124).
- 51.
This occurred primarily in the East German states.
- 52.
Cf. Index of Legal Sources.
- 53.
Thus it is reported that no adverse effects were seen in Baden-Württemberg. See Printed Paper of the State Parliament (Landtagsdrucksache, LT-Drs.) 14/2819 of June 06, 2008 “Facilitation of the Construction of Small and Middle-Scale Hydropower Plants” (“Erleichterung der Errichtung von kleinen und mittleren Wasserkraftanlagen“).
- 54.
The situation has since altered: large hydropower plants can in some cases obtain higher prices on the energy market (exchange) than they can with the EEG tariff. The average wholesale electricity price in 2008 was more than 6 cent/kWh. The large power plants therefore did not make recourse to the feed-in tariff at all.
- 55.
In this context the Renewable Energy Sources Act 2007 (BMU 2007b, 61) cites over 5,000 full load hours/year and low specific investment costs (<4,000–4,500 euro/kWh) for instance.
- 56.
In doing so, the Federal Ministry for the Environment was yielding to pressure from the state of Baden-Württemberg, where there were large plants in need of modernization. The VDMA and individual companies, including EnBW, also lobbied vehemently for the inclusion of large hydropower in the support scheme.
- 57.
Specifically, at issue was the modernization and/or new construction of the run-of-river power plant in Rheinfelden (operated by EnBW), which is why insiders also referred to the inclusion of large hydropower as “lex Rheinfelden”. Many plants would not otherwise have been economically viable in view of the looming relicensing requirements and the far-reaching modernization and retrofitting measures, with no feed-in tariff and the electricity prices at the level they were on the market (at the time 3–4 cent/kWh), meaning that the continued operation of plants was at risk (Staiß 2007, 94).
- 58.
Private hydropower operators organized within the Federal Association of German Hydropower Plants (BDW) rejected the inclusion of large plants belonging to the energy industry, reasoning that large hydropower plants did not need support since they were far more profitable than the small plants run by medium-sized companies and could earn more through the direct sale of electricity than was stipulated in the EEG. See the press release connected with the member assembly in Frankfurt on May 05, 2003: http://www.wasserkraft.org/ (accessed August 06, 2009).
- 59.
The compensation period was intended to be unlimited for plants that began operating before January 01, 2004, while the claim to compensation was increased from 15 to 30 years for younger plants. In view of the long amortization periods of plants, Heimerl (2009, pers. comm.) believes that long terms of that order were justified. In the case of plants of > 5 MW the compensation period was limited to 15 years though.
- 60.
With that, a balance was struck between the nature conservation issues and the interests in energy-related use of rivers, while, it was thought, additional interference in small rivers and streams still in their natural state could be avoided.
- 61.
See press release of Nature and Bio-Diversity Conservation Union (Naturschutzbund Deutschland – NABU) of July 20, 2005. http://www.nabu.de/ (accessed: August 06, 2009).
However, it must be said that rehabilitation or conversion of existing hydropower plants occurred only rarely in a scope that allowed the construction of “detours” or fish passage aides actually to be stipulated during the permit procedure.
- 62.
For example, one cannot assume that the issue of a permit is sufficient evidence that an improvement in river ecology has been achieved.
- 63.
Due to the high status that hydropower utilization enjoys in Baden-Württemberg, the government of that state was probably more willing to make concessions in this matter, according to Heimerl (2009, pers. comm.).
- 64.
Cf. BMU (2005). The Federal Ministry for the Environment was instructed by the legislature to prepare this guideline in connection with the EEG amendment (BT-Drs. 15/2864).
- 65.
A more compact construction method was thought to lessen the environmental impacts on the waterbodies, upstream and downstream fish movement technologies would improve passage and the installation of side channels would create additional spawning beds. In 2006 the Federal Ministry for the Environment earmarked 570,000 euros from the Environmental Innovation Program for the hydropower project (BMU 2006).
- 66.
Since small hydropower is found only in patchwork fashion outside of Bavaria, estimated figures are used often in compiling statistics on this subject.
- 67.
This project included an exemplary fish ladder installation. On the construction project/progress of construction up to 2007 see http://www.energiedienst.de/ (accessed August 06, 2009).
- 68.
This is intended to be a “citizens’ hydropower plant” – a novelty in the hydropower sector with respect to its operator structure.
- 69.
An expansion project can only be implemented when both the environmental and the economic conditions in both border countries involved are favorable (Laubach 2004, 18).
- 70.
Waterwheels should be seen more as a niche product, but they are currently experiencing something of a renaissance in the micro-capacity sector. See http://bega-wasserkraft.de/Wasserrad/ (accessed August 08, 2009).
- 71.
Modern planetary gears and transmissions from 1:100 can achieve efficiencies of over 90%.
- 72.
According to the WWF (2003), the substantial damage caused by small hydropower plants is disproportionately great relative to plant capacity. For that reason the WWF advocates including large hydropower plants with over 5 MW capacities in the EEG support, whereby the support would go only to additional capacity.
- 73.
The conservation organization BUND criticized the link in the public hearing on the EEG 2004 in the Bundestag and considered the arrangement in the WHG to be adequate in that respect.
- 74.
For instance, Wasserkraft Volk AG cited its export quota as over 90%. Wasserkraft Volk AG’s chief sources of revenue are primarily emerging countries. By contrast, their German business, they report, is continually declining due to the high bureaucratic hurdles. See http://www.iwr.de/ (accessed August 06, 2009).
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Bruns, E., Ohlhorst, D., Wenzel, B., Köppel, J. (2011). Innovation Framework for Generating Electricity from Hydropower. In: Renewable Energies in Germany’s Electricity Market. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9905-1_8
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