Abstract
Renewable energies in Germany developed within an overall framework of cross-sectoral influencing factors and events. These issues essentially refer to the EU level and the German federal level. The energy and environmental crises, which triggered a change of mindset in society, were among the most important processes that affected the development of renewable energy in Germany. Also, the innovation process was – and still is – closely linked to international climate protection research and policy. The climate protection process and its institutionalization at international and EU level interacted with national problem awareness and respective processes. After the change of German government in 1998, climate protection – and from 2002 also renewable energy policy – was institutionalized with the Federal Environment Ministry. This significantly pushed the process at the national level. Specifications at EU level for the liberalization of the electricity market ultimately led to the energy sector opening up, national reforms being initiated in the energy sector and renewable energy being granted access to the electricity sector. In addition, the feed-in laws for renewable energies were accompanied by a large number of further legal adjustments.
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Notes
- 1.
A few years after its foundation in 1972, the Federal Association of Environmental Grassroots Action Groups (BBU) comprised already more than 600 groups (Roth 2009).
- 2.
Future report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our common future”, chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland.
- 3.
E.g., GEO special issues on climate protection in the 1980s; Bild der Wissenschaft issues on hydrogen technology.
- 4.
The Stern Review: The Economics of Climate Change (Stern 2007).
- 5.
At the time of going to press, seven power station were under construction and 22 power stations were in the design phase (cf. http://www.duh.de/..., accessed August 25, 2009). Critical locations included Hamburg-Moorburg, Hamburg-Brunsbüttel, Berlin-Lichtenberg, Lubmin in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania and Mainz-Wiesbaden (cf. Die Klima-Allianz: “Der Widerstand wächst – Proteste gegen neue Kohlekraftwerke.” www.deutscheumweltstiftung.de/, accessed April 21, 2009).
- 6.
The first oil price crisis was triggered in 1973 by the Yom Kippur War, in the wake of which the OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) drastically curbed oil production. The oil price rose by ca. 70% due to this “oil embargo”. The second oil price crisis occurred in 1979, and was essentially caused by production losses and confusion after the revolution in Iran and the subsequent war between Iraq and Iran.
- 7.
See also the crude oil studies of the Energy Watch Group, which assume that maximum production (“peak-oil”) had already been reached in 2006 (www.energywatchgroup.org/..., accessed December 10, 2009).
- 8.
The trading volume on the oil market is frequently 15 times that of the actual worldwide oil consumption of currently 86 million barrels per day (ibid.).
- 9.
Demonstrations in Brokdorf in 1976, Grohnde in 1977, Kalkar in 1977, Gorleben in 1979 etc.
- 10.
On 28 March 1979 the reactor in block 2 experienced a partial meltdown, in the course of which about a third of the reactor core was fragmented or melted.
- 11.
In September 1957 a concrete tank containing a highly radioactive liquid exploded on the south-east side of the Ural mountain range (close to Ozyorsk) at the plutonium plant “Mayak”. Significantly more radioactivity was released than during the Chernobyl accident. The disaster is regarded as the best kept secret of a maximum credible accident in history. See http://www.welt.de/wissenschaft/... (accessed August 25, 2009).
- 12.
Press release of the SPD parliamentary group on 26 January 2000.
- 13.
Germany agreed within the context of the Kyoto Protocol to reduce six greenhouse gases by 21% between 2008 and 2012.
- 14.
Accidents in Brunsbüttel (2001) and Krümmel (2007).
- 15.
http://www.bmwi.de/BMWi/... (accessed October 21, 2008). BDI president Jürgen Thurmann, too, opposed a nuclear phaseout based on the argument of climate protection (press release of 22 May 2007).
- 16.
http://www.verivox.de/nachrichten/... (accessed August 20, 2009).
- 17.
Whether the changed consumption behavior in China and India has really contributed to the current price rise is doubted by the FAO. Their growing demand for grain, it argues, is met by their own production. China’s and India’s grain imports have dropped from 14 million tons at the beginning of 1980 to 6 million tons in the last 3 years, but the future influence on high food prices could be greater (FAO 2008, 11).
- 18.
The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE), also known as the Stockholm Conference, took place in Stockholm from 5 to 16 June 1972. It was the first environmental conference convened by the United Nations.
- 19.
- 20.
www.icsu-scope.org/downloadpubs/scope29/statement.html (accessed September 10, 2009).
- 21.
In November 1987 a conference of high-ranking political decision-makers was held in Bellagio (Italy). It drew on the results of the Villach conference (Matthes 2005, 26).
- 22.
Prof. Dr. Hartmut Graßl was the director of the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, between 1989 and 2005. From 1994 he was in charge of the World Climate Research Program (WCRP) for several years, which is organized jointly by the WMO and the International Council of Scientific Unions.
- 23.
The Committee of Inquiry was appointed by the 11th German Bundestag and existed from 1987 to 1995. Its first report in 1988, presented at the researchers’ convention on climate change in Hamburg, focused in particular on replacements for the greenhouse gas CFC and on measures for rational energy use (www.nachhaltigkeit.info/artikel/..., accessed November 10, 2009).
- 24.
The German Meteorological Service (Deutscher Wetterdienst) is still part of the Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Affairs today. It is no longer responsible for matters of climate protection, though. Climate issues were primarily associated with weather phenomena at the time.
- 25.
The greenhouse gases addressed by the 1997 Kyoto Protocol are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide (laughing gas), perfluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons and sulfur hexafluoride.
- 26.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) aims to slow down man-made global warming and to mitigate its impact.
- 27.
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. It adopted the Agenda 21, an action program containing recommendations for sustainable development, and is regarded as a milestone in global environmental and development policy.
- 28.
The Kyoto Protocol is an optional protocol linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and adopted on 11 December 1997. It sets binding targets for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
- 29.
Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, perfluorocarbons (PFC), hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) and sulfur hexafluoride. Reduction of the individual gases were converted to “CO2 equivalents”, and then added up to a total value.
- 30.
www.bmu.de/klimaschutz/aktuell/... (accessed August 25, 2009).
- 31.
- 32.
These targets failed as a result of the coalition of the US and the OPEC states known from the context of climate policy (ibid.).
- 33.
Hirschl (2008, 578) perceives an important positive effect of the conference in the fact that its voluntary context allowed the participating countries to “positively” deviate from their usual positions in climate and energy policy. The federal environment minister of the time termed the conference a milestone in the transition to an energy system that places climate protection and the real development potential of the world’s poor countries at the center of attention.
- 34.
Cf. REN 21 Renewable Energy Policy Network. 2005. “Globaler Statusbericht 2005 Erneuerbare Energien”. Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute.
- 35.
The Group of Eight is comprised of the leading industrialized nations of Germany, the United States of America, Japan, Great Britain, Canada, France, Italy and Russia. The European Commission is also represented in the commission with observer status.
- 36.
This refers to the commitment to restrict the rise in temperature to below 2°C compared to the pre-industrial level.
- 37.
The Climate Conference on the Indonesian island of Bali was the 13th Conference of the Parties of the Framework Convention on Climate Change (cf. Löschel et al. 2008, 28 sqq.).
- 38.
Not all countries accepted the base line of the Kyoto Protocol, which prescribes and quantifies a reduction of carbon dioxide emissions. Nations with a strong economic development (USA, China) opposed for economic reasons. The developing countries, in turn, demanded greater support of the industrialized countries in dealing with the problems and costs incurred by climate change.
- 39.
All of the G8 states (i.e. also the USA) declared their support for emission reductions by at least 50% by 2050 at the G8 Summit in Japan.
- 40.
Schellnhuber, J. in: http://www.epd.de/nachrichten/nachrichten_index_68662.html (accessed November 20, 2009).
- 41.
http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2009/cop15/eng/l07.pdf (accessed December 23, 2009).
- 42.
Ultimately the efforts benefited from the simultaneous foundation of other partnerships, such as the REN 21 (Hirschl 2008, 484 and 532 sqq.) While REN 21 is a relatively open policy network with only a small secretariat that is operated by the GTZ and the UNEP, IRENA was devised as an independently acting agency right from the start (IRENA 2009a).
- 43.
The Agency provides its consulting services at the request of its member states only (Bundesregierung 2008a, 7).
- 44.
This Agency is accused of not taking a neutral stance toward the entirety of energy sources, but rather to heavily support conventional and nuclear energy supply (Scheer 2008a, 1; similar Gabriel 2009, 1). Gabriel therefore regards IRENA as an alternative to the lobby interests of the conventional energy industry (2009, 2).
- 45.
The EU Commission had presented a first draft directive on the liberalization of the energy markets as early as 1992. Yet it was not adopted.
- 46.
The sources for the legal information used in this chapter are given in the Index of Legal Sources.
- 47.
This sector had successfully fought changes to the 60-year-old legal status quo, especially the abandonment of the protected regional monopolies.
- 48.
In the case of electricity it is made up of (1) generation, (2) (wholesale) trade, (3) electricity grids (high and extra high voltage), (4) sales and (5) distribution networks.
- 49.
This grid access regulation is designed to permit non-discriminatory third-party access to the supply grids. Denying access to the grid is only possible if the grid does not have the required wheeling capacities.
- 50.
Grid operators must make available their grids at a certain fee, while grid usage charges may be government-regulated.
- 51.
The European Commission frequently introduces a legislative process (e.g. adoption of directives) with the so-called Green or White Papers. Green Papers are published with the purpose of initiating a consulting process at the European level. White Papers contain proposals for relevant measures and activities of the European Community.
- 52.
http://www.bundesregierung.de/... (accessed September 1, 2009).
- 53.
The Lisbon Strategy was adopted at a special summit of the European heads of state in Lisbon in March 2000. It aims to assist political alignment in EU countries, which is intended to make the EU the most competitive and most dynamic knowledge-based economic area of the world by 2010. This strategy, which was simplified in 2005 after an evaluation of the half-time results, is supposed to make a significant contribution to the economic upswing in Europe. Cf. http://ec.europa.eu/growthandjobs/ index_de.htm (accessed September 1, 2009).
- 54.
The Commission, or to be more precise, the competition commissioner and his directorate-general, preferred quota-based certificate schemes, and rejected feed-in models as being inefficient.
- 55.
This was favored by the advocates of the principle of subsidiarity, who had objected simplification as well and wanted to maintain the member states’ scope for action (Hirschl 2008, 434).
- 56.
In 2001 Germany generated ca. 7% of its electricity from renewable energy sources.
- 57.
The reference values for Germany were also 2% (2005) and 5.75% (2010). These targets do not necessarily require an admixture, but the respective percent share in the overall fuel demand to be covered by biofuels (cf. Art. 3 (2)).
- 58.
http://www.euractiv.com/de/energie/... (accessed September 1, 2009).
- 59.
In addition, the directive specifies a non-binding indicative trajectory for each member state (interim targets). It also stipulates that 20% of the respective national targets shall be met in 2012, 30% in 2014, 45% in 2016, and 65% in 2018.
- 60.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) scientists were invited to attend the Committee of Inquiry. Not only the Committee of Inquiry benefited from this. The members of the IPCC, too, realized that there was great potential for scientific and political cooperation at the national level (Dürrschmidt 2007, pers. comm.).
- 61.
There were, for instance, considerable differences concerning the margin nuclear energy should have in view of climate protection.
- 62.
Cf. http://www.germanwatch.org/... (accessed August 25, 2009); cf. also Beisheim (2003, 225).
- 63.
The source for this section are personal reports from the Federal Ministry for the Environment.
- 64.
The term originates from the title of a study conducted by the Öko-Institut in 1980, which prepared a forecast about nuclear phaseout and energy generation from mineral oil.
- 65.
The future investment program was financed by interest savings that the federal government obtained from additional redemption payments on debts from UMTS allocation funds. Between 2001 and 2003 an annual 50 million euros from these savings were used mainly for research and development of projects in the field of renewable energy and fuel cells (BMU 2002, 19).
- 66.
The German Energy Agency (dena) was founded by the Federal Ministry of Economics and the Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW) on 29 September 2000. The federal ministry and the KfW each have a 50% share in dena. The objective was to establish a center of expertise for energy efficiency and renewable energy.
- 67.
In its issue of February 2007, for instance, the journal Erneuerbare Energien, reported on conflicts between wind power interest groups and hydropower interest groups (Baars 2007, 6).
- 68.
The most important ones were the interest group “Windkraft Binnenland (IWB)” and the “Deutsche Gesellschaft für Windenergie (DGW)” which merged with the German WindEnergy Association (BWE) in 1996.
- 69.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
- 70.
http://www.bmu.de/klimaschutz/nationale_klimapolitik/... (accessed September 1, 2009).
- 71.
“Vereinbarung zwischen der Bundesregierung und den Energieversorgungsunternehmen über die künftige Nutzung der Kernenergie” (Agreement between the German federal government and the power utilities about the future use of nuclar power) of 14 June 2000.
- 72.
In 2007, 17 nuclear power stations were still being operated.
- 73.
Cf. Bundesregierung (2002a): The German national sustainability strategy “Perspectives for Germany” is very similar to the EU strategy of 2001.
- 74.
- 75.
The utilization of offshore wind energy was viewed as necessary by the German government in order to meet the statutory climate protection commitments and substitution targets.
- 76.
The funding volume was increased tenfold due to the green electricity taxation.
- 77.
Under Hans Matthöfer, Federal Minister of Research and Technology from 1974 to 1978.
- 78.
The total budget had been 6.53 billion german marks. Nuclear energy was allotted 4.53 billion marks, coal (especially its conversion into liquid and gaseous energy sources) received a total of 940 million german marks, rational energy use 490 million marks, and new energy sources 570 million marks. When deducting nuclear fusion, the promotion of those energy sources that are defined today as “renewable” was merely 191 million marks (BMFT 1978, 160).
- 79.
At the time the DLR was going through a crisis during which aeronautics activities were curbed. Since the DLR had concerned itself with the conversion of energy with respect to aerospace technology, it now began to deal with questions of terrestrial energy supply as well.
- 80.
Cf. Program survey “Sekundärenergiesysteme. Strom, Kohleveredelungsprodukte, Wasserstoff, nukleare Fernenergie, Fernwärme. Kurzfassung.” Report by the KFA Jülich No. 1148, Programmgruppe Systemforschung und technologische Entwicklung. Commissioned by the BMFT in 1974.
- 81.
Ludwig Bölkow founded the Ludwig Bölkow Foundation (Ludwig-Bölkow-Stiftung) in Ottobrunn in 1983. The objective of the Foundation was to make technology more ecological. Studies were performed on solar installations in the desert and on a more efficient storage of hydrogen as an energy source.
- 82.
- 83.
Several titles of German news magazins like Der Spiegel show that energy from sun and water were of public interest: In 1976 it published an article titled “Energie aus Sonne und Wasser für die Welt” (Energy from sun and water for the world). It also published articles on the potentials of hydrogen in 1972, 1976 and 1977. In 1987 the magazine’s cover story was: “Wasserstoff und Sonne. Energie für die Zukunft” (Hydrogen and sun: energy of the future) (Spiegel 1987, No 34, Issue 41, 17 August 1987).
- 84.
The idea of an energy transition was for the first time elaborated in a survey presented by the Öko-Institut Freiburg in 1980. It had the title “Energiewende” (energy transition) (Krause et al. 1980).
- 85.
Cf. BT-Drs. 8/3144 of 31 August 1979, p. 21.
- 86.
The program promotes investment in energy saving and the use of renewable energy sources. It differentiates between demonstration promotion (focus on feasibility) and widespread promotion (focus on marketability).
- 87.
Guideline of the Ministry of Economics in Brandenburg for the promotion of energy efficiency and for the use of renewable energies (REN Program) of 18 July 2007.
- 88.
Association agreements (“Verbändevereinbarungen”) have been a peculiar German way of corporate self-regulation.
- 89.
- 90.
Bernd Schmidbauer was the CDU/CSU’s environment spokesperson in the Bundestag and member of the Committee of Inquiry “Vorsorge und Schutz der Erdatmosphäre” (Provisions for the Protection of the Earth’s Atmosphere). Matthias Engelsberger, a member of the CSU and also of the Bundestag, represented the interests of medium-sized businesses (wood processing, hydropower) in Bavaria.
- 91.
Badenwerk AG in Karlsruhe, Kraftübertragungswerke Rheinfelden and Stadtwerke Geesthacht each paid only the rates declared in association agreements to one of their customers (Tacke 2004, 207).
- 92.
Der Spiegel, 8 May 1995; cf. Deutscher Bundestag, minutes of plenary proceedings 13/39 of 19 May 1995.
- 93.
This rule specifies that the upstream grid operator has to refund the additional costs incurred by exceeding the 5% share as soon as the share of renewable energies exceeds 5% of the kilowatt hours sold by the power utility.
- 94.
Cf. comments in Natur und Recht 2002, p. 148.
- 95.
The remuneration specified in the StrEG was coupled to the average power price, which dropped in the course of the continuing liberalization of the energy market.
- 96.
Cf. Green faction in the Bundestag (1999, 23).
- 97.
For example, see the pilot study by Nitsch (2000). The results of these examinations were presented at the Bundestag’s expert sittings and were drawn on for the decision-making process.
- 98.
There was dissent on the compensation rates, on rotor surface model versus reference yield model, distribution of the grid connection costs and grid reinforcement costs.
- 99.
Draft of a law on the promotion of power generation from renewable energy sources (EEG) and on changing the oil taxation law of November 29, 1999. The EEG entered into force on April 01, 2000.
- 100.
Especially metal processing businesses and the aluminum industry.
- 101.
In view of the threat of job losses, the Federal Ministry for the Environment ultimately felt pressured to permit such a hardship provision for the energy-intensive industry.
- 102.
The so-called “Härtefallregelung” (hardship provision). Doubts were raised about whether this increasing advantage of the electricity-intensive companies was still in accordance with the Constitution (Oschmann & Sösemann 2007, 3).
- 103.
Cf. BMU (2006) and the studies of ARGE Monitoring PV-Anlagen (2006) on photovoltaics and of IE Leipzig (2007) on biomass.
- 104.
The EEG field report (BMU 2007c) had been presented to the German Bundestag by the Federal Environment Ministry in consultation with the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and the Federal Ministry of Economics, and was resolved by the Federal Cabinet on 7 November 2007. In it the portfolios had already agreed on recommendations for shaping the system of promotion based on minimum remuneration and bonuses for the individual sectors.
- 105.
Matters of dispute included the compensation rates for solar power, for instance, which the CDU and the CSU would have preferred to be much lower.
- 106.
http://www.bmu.de/pressemitteilungen/... (accessed September 3, 2009).
- 107.
The zoning category of “appropriate areas” was introduced by the BauROG 1998 (cf. Index of Legal Sources). The appropriate wind use areas were identified by overlaying criteria indicating high wind yield with minimal clearance criteria. The latter were meant to avoid conflicts with other land uses (like settlement, recreation) and protection needs (e.g. bird protection, cultural heritage, visual landscape).
- 108.
This opportunity was grasped in particular by the northern German federal states.
- 109.
Projects with a licensing privilege in non-urbanized areas have to be given approval, unless they are not compatible with public interests (see Section 35 of the Federal Building Act).
- 110.
In Brandenburg and Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, the regional plans became more important as a means of regulation than in the old federal states due to the lack of local land use plans in the new federal states.
- 111.
E.g., shipping, construction of storage sites (sand and gravel quarrying), fishing, aquacultures, military use, communications (subsea cabling), tourism.
- 112.
Supported by the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, the Federal Environment Ministry’s department for nature conservation initially rejected the privileged status for landscape protection reasons.
- 113.
The Federal Environment Ministry prepared a draft formulation for the privileged status for the Bundestag’s Environment Committee (Dürrschmidt 2007, pers. comm.).
- 114.
At the level of regional planning: “Eignungsgebiete” (appropriate areas); at the level of local development planning: “Konzentrationszonen” (concentration zones).
- 115.
Article 7 of the Act for the Acceleration of Infrastructural Planning amended the German Energy Industry Act (EnWG) by inserting § 17a, which commits transmission system operators, in whose supply area offshore wind turbines are operated, to establish and maintain a connection to the grid at their own expense.
- 116.
Article 2 of the Energy Line Extension Act effects changes to the German Energy Industry Act. A planning approval procedure with a concentrating effect is introduced for grid connection of offshore turbines. It replaces the previously necessary time-consuming individual approvals.
- 117.
Hirschl (2008) ascribes the German electricity sector a great deal of inertia in view of attempts at liberalizing and restructuring the supply structures.
- 118.
In August 2009 E.on and a municipal buying pool agreed to purchase Thüga. Thüga is the core of Germany’s largest network of local and regional energy suppliers (http://www.thuega.de/… accessed September 2, 2009). When carried out, the transaction will found Germany’s fifth-largest independent energy and water supplier. The association of municipal businesses (VKU) hopes that the sale will create greater competition within the electricity market (Süddeutsche Zeitung of 12 August 2009).
- 119.
The largest power generating company is Electricité de France (EdF), with sales figures amounting to 633 TWh per year. E.ON is second, selling 435 TWh per year, and REW comes third. EnBW ranks tenth, selling 140 TWh per year.
- 120.
Even at the time of adopting the EU directive in 1995, it aimed to save German utilities from being subjected to a regulating authority.
- 121.
This coalition was made up of proponents of renewable energy, consumer associations, and even the conservative opposition or states under conservative governments and industrial energy consumers. The EnBW played a special role in that it stepped out of the otherwise closed ranks of the conventional power supply industry and spoke up in favor of regulation.
- 122.
Threatening infringement proceedings.
- 123.
See Hirschl (2008, 242).
- 124.
If a grid operator violates the order demanding discrimination-free access to the grid and fair remuneration, the state’s competition authority (antitrust authority) can act retroactively.
- 125.
Its tasks also include granting approval for grid remuneration for transmission of electricity and gas, preventing or eliminating obstacles blocking access to the energy supply grid for suppliers and consumers, standardizing supplier change processes, and improving grid connection conditions for new power stations. Cf. http://www.bundesnetzagentur.de/... (accessed September 9, 2009).
- 126.
Only in individual cases can the Consumer Protection Ministry and the Federal Environment Ministry be consulted (on general prices for private clients and on renewable energies, respectively).
- 127.
The accusation of having violated competition law and the threat of a possible penalty by the European Commission.
- 128.
With the adoption of the Meseberg resolutions in August 2007, the Federal Government reiterated the decision to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by 2020 compared to 1990. Moreover, the Federal Government advocates a commitment of the international community of nations (developed countries) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2050.
- 129.
In technical and economic terms, nuclear and lignite-fired power plants are designed to generate a steady amount of electricity to cover the base load.
- 130.
Nuclear power stations and CCS coal-fired power plants are regarded as inflexible, i.e., not capable of being regulated – it takes more than 20 h to start up a power station.
- 131.
These are “virtual” power plants with a regional focus which use control technologies to combine decentralized power conversion plants for solar power, wind, biogas and water located in various regions, in a way that allows for continual on-demand power supply. The linking of the power plants permits controlling the decentralized plants in the same way as a conventional large power plant.
- 132.
New large coal-fired power stations can only be operated economically if their capacity utilization is high. This holds true in particular for lignite-fired power plants that require a very high number of operating hours in order to be economical. The electricity produced must be sold on a continuous basis, even in times of low demand (at night or at weekends). The production rate of other generators must be decreased during this phase.
- 133.
In addition, the electricity stock exchange frequently saw situations that led to zero or negative prices, which result from the fact that there is an excess amount of base load while the distribution of electricity generated from renewable sources must be prioritized.
- 134.
CCS = carbon (dioxide) capture and storage.
- 135.
Arguments for the development and application of the CO2 capture technology include the possibility of exporting it to countries such as China or India, where coal will remain an important source of energy for some time.
- 136.
At the time of going to press, a controversially debated bill on CO2 storage was in the course of being legislated to explore this (see SRU 2009).
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Bruns, E., Ohlhorst, D., Wenzel, B., Köppel, J. (2011). Cross-sectoral Interventions, Events and Processes. In: Renewable Energies in Germany’s Electricity Market. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9905-1_3
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