Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Management and Environmental Influences on Mammary Gland Development and Milk Production

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Managing the Prenatal Environment to Enhance Livestock Productivity

Abstract

The vast majority of mammary growth occurs postnatally. For example, in dairy cows mammary parenchymal mass increases approximately 10,000-fold, from less than 0.5 g per gland at birth to approximately 5.5 kg during lactation, and the mammary epithelium differentiates from a primitive branching ductal network to a fully differentiated lobuloalveolar network that is capable of synthesising copious quantities of milk. These growth and developmental processes are hormonally regulated, but also involve extensive interactions among cell types (e.g. stromal, epithelial, myoepithelial, stem and progenitor cells) and local regulation by paracrine/autocrine factors. Appropriate nutrient intake and balance is important for mammary growth and development, and these processes may be influenced by under- or over-nutrition. Because of interactions between the environment and the endocrine system, mammary development and differentiation can be influenced by additional factors such as bioactive substances in feed and by photoperiod. Ultimately, milk yield is determined by the number of fully differentiated mammary epithelial cells and by homeorhetic mechanisms that regulate functions of other organs to support milk production.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Adams, N.R. 1995. Detection of the effects of phytoestrogens on sheep and cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 73:1509–1515.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Akers, R.M. 1985. Lactogenic hormones: binding sites, mammary growth, secretory cell differentiation, and milk biosynthesis in ruminants. J. Dairy Sci. 68:501–519.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Akers, R. M. 2002. Lactation and the Mammary Gland. Iowa State Press, Ames, IA.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Akers, R.M. 2006. Major advances associated with hormone and growth factor regulation of mammary growth and lactation in dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 89:1222–1234.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Akers, R.M., D.E. Bauman, A.V. Capuco, G.T. Goodman, and H.A. Tucker. 1981. Prolactin regulation of milk secretion and biochemical differentiation of mammary epithelial cells in periparturient cows. Endocrinology 109:23–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Akers, R.M., D.E. Bauman, G.T. Goodman, A.V. Capuco, and H.A. Tucker. 1981. Prolactin regulation of cytological differentiation of mammary epithelial cells in periparturient cows. Endocrinology 109:31–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Akers, R. M. and A. V. Capuco 2002. Lactogenesis, p. 1442–1446. In H. Roginski, J. W. Fuquay, and P. F. Fox, (eds.), Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences, Academic Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Akers, R.M., S.E. Ellis, and S.D. Berry. 2005. Ovarian and IGF-I axis control of mammary development in prepubertal heifers. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 29:259–267.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Akers, R.M., T.B. McFadden, S. Purup, M. Vestergaard, K. Sejrsen, and A.V. Capuco. 2000. Local IGF-I axis in peripubertal ruminant mammary development. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 5:43–51.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Anderson, R. R. 1985. Mammary Gland. p. 3–38. In B. L. Larson, (ed), Lactation, The Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Badger, T.M., M.J. Ronis, R. Hakkak, J.C. Rowlands, and S. Korourian. 2002. The health consequences of early soy consumption. J. Nutr. 132:559S–565S.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Barash, H., Y. Barmeir, and I. Bruckental. 1994. Effects of low-energy diet followed by a compensatory diet on growth, puberty and milk production in dairy heifers. Livest. Prod. Sci. 39:263–268.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Berry, S.D.K., P.M. Jobst, S.E. Ellis, R.D. Howard, A.V. Capuco, and R.M. Akers. 2003. Mammary epithelial proliferation and estrogen receptor alpha expression in prepubertal heifers: effects of ovariectomy and growth hormone. J. Dairy Sci. 86:2098–2105.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Bickenbach, J.R. 1981. Identification and behavior of label-retaining cells in oral mucosa and skin. J. Dent. Res. Sp.Iss.C 60:1611–1620.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Blackburn, D.G., V. Hayssen, and C.J. Murphy. 1989. The origins of lactation and evolution of milk: A review with new hypothesis. Mamm. Rev. 19:1–26.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Block, S.S., J.M. Smith, R.A. Ehrhardt, M.C. Diaz, R.P. Rhoads, M.E. Van Amburgh, and Y.R. Boisclair. 2003. Nutritional and developmental regulation of plasma leptin in dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 86:3206–3214.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Bocchinfuso, W.P. and K.S. Korach. 1997. Mammary gland development and tumorigenesis in estrogen receptor knockout mice. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 2:323–334.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Boisclair, Y.R., R.P. Rhoads, I. Ueki, J. Wang, and G.T. Ooi. 2001. The acid-labile subunit (ALS) of the 150 kDa IGF-binding protein complex: an important but forgotten component of the circulating IGF system. J. Endocrinol. 170:63–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Borellini, F. and T. Oka. 1989. Growth control and differentiation in mammary epithelial cells. Environ. Health Perspect. 80:85–99.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Capuco, A.V. 2007. Identification of putative bovine mammary epithelial stem cells by their retention of labeled DNA strands. Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood) 232:1381–1390.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Capuco, A.V. and R.M. Akers. 1999. Mammary involution in dairy animals. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 4:137–144.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Capuco, A. V., E. Annen, A. C. Fitzgerald, S. E. Ellis, and R. J. Collier 2006. Mammary cell turnover: relevance to lactation persistency and dry period management. p. 363–388. In Ruminant physiology: Digestion, metabolism and impact of nutrition on gene expression, immunology and stress, Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, The Netherlands..

    Google Scholar 

  23. Capuco, A.V., G.E. Dahl, D.L. Wood, U. Moallem, and R.E. Erdman. 2004. Effect of bovine somatotropin and rumen-undegradable protein on mammary growth of prepubertal dairy heifers and subsequent milk production. J. Dairy Sci. 87:3762–3769.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Capuco, A.V. and S. Ellis. 2005. Bovine mammary progenitor cells: current concepts and future directions. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 10:5–15.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Capuco, A.V., S. Ellis, D.L. Wood, R.M. Akers, and W. Garrett. 2002. Postnatal mammary ductal growth: three-dimensional imaging of cell proliferation, effects of estrogen treatment, and expression of steroid receptors in prepubertal calves. Tissue Cell 34:143–154.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Capuco, A.V., J.J. Smith, D.R. Waldo, and C.E.,Jr. Rexroad. 1995. Influence of prepubertal dietary regimen on mammary growth of Holstein heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 78:2709–2725.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Ceriani, R.L. 1970. Fetal mammary gland differentiation in vitro in response to hormones. I. Morphological findings. Dev. Biol. 21:506–529.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Ceriani, R.L. 1970. Fetal mammary gland differentiation in vitro in response to hormones. II. Biochemical findings. Dev. Biol.. 21:530–546.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Choi, Y.J., K. Jang, D.S. Yim, M.G. Baik, D.H. Myung, Y.S. Kim, H.J. Lee, and J.S. Kim. 1998. Effects of compensatory growth on the expression of milk protein gene and biochemical changes of the mammary gland in Holstein cows. J. Nutr. Biochem. 9:380–387.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Clark, R.D. and R.W. Touchberry. 1962. Effect of body weight and age at calving on milk production in Holstein cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 45:1500–1510.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Connor, E.E., D.L. Wood, T.S. Sonstegard, A.F. da Mota, G.L. Bennett, J.L. Williams, and A.V. Capuco. 2005. Chromosomal mapping and quantitative analysis of estrogen-related receptor alpha-1, estrogen receptors alpha and beta and progesterone receptor in the bovine mammary gland. J. Endocrinol. 185:593–603.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Coppock, R.W., M.S. Mostrom, C.G. Sparling, B. Jacobsen, and S.C. Ross. 1990. Apparent zearalenone intoxication in a dairy herd from feeding spoiled acid-treated corn. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 32:246–248.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Couse, J.F. and K.S. Korach. 1999. Estrogen receptor null mice: what have we learned and where will they lead us? Endocr. Rev. 20:358–417.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Cowie, A.T., J.S. Tindal, and A. Yokoyama. 1966. The induction of mammary growth in the hypophysectomised goat. J. Endocrinol. 34:185–195.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Crews, D. and J.A. McLachlan. 2006. Epigenetics, evolution, endocrine disruption, health, and disease. Endocrinology 147:S4–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. D’Cruz, C.M., S.E. Moody, S.R. Master, J.L. Hartman, E.A. Keiper, M.B. Imielinski, J.D. Cox, J.Y. Wang, S.I. Ha, B.A. Keister, and L.A. Chodosh. 2002. Persistent parity-induced changes in growth factors, TGF-beta3, and differentiation in the rodent mammary gland. Mol. Endocrinol. 16:2034–2051.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. D’Mello, J.P.F., C.M. Placinta, and A.M.C. Macdonald. 1999. Fusarium mycotoxins: a review of global implications for animal health, welfare and productivity. Anim. Feed Sci. Techn. 80:183–205.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Dahl, G.E. and D. Petitclerc. 2003. Management of photoperiod in the dairy herd for improved production and health. J. Anim. Sci. (Suppl. 3) 81:11–17.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. de Groot, A.N., P.W. van Dongen, T.B. Vree, Y.A. Hekster, and J. van Roosmalen. 1998. Ergot alkaloids. Current status and review of clinical pharmacology and therapeutic use compared with other oxytocics in obstetrics and gynaecology. Drugs 56:523–535.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. DeOme, K.B., L.J.Jr. Faulkin, H.A. Bern, and P.B. Blair. 1959. Development of mammary tumors from hyperplastic alveolar nodules transplanted into gland-free mammary fat pads of female C3H mice. Cancer Res. 19:515–520.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Desai, M., N.J. Crowther, S.E. Ozanne, A. Lucas, and C.N. Hales. 1995. Adult glucose and lipid metabolism may be programmed during fetal life. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 23:331–335.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. DiAugustine, R.P., R.G. Richards, and J. Sebastian. 1997. EGF-related peptides and their receptors in mammary gland development. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 2:109–117.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Diaz, G.J. and H.J. Boermans. 1994. Fumonisin toxicosis in domestic animals: a review. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 36:548–555.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Dontu, G., M. Al-Hajj, W.M. Abdallah, M.F. Clarke, and M.S. Wicha. 2003. Stem cells in normal breast development and breast cancer. Cell. Prolif. (Suppl. 1) 36:59–72.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Ellis, S. and A.V. Capuco. 2002. Cell proliferation in bovine mammary epithelium: identification of the primary proliferative cell population. Tissue Cell 34:155–163.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Feldman, M., W. Ruan, I. Tappin, R. Wieczorek, and D.L. Kleinberg. 1999. The effect of GH on estrogen receptor expression in the rat mammary gland. J. Endocrinol. 163:515–522.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Filep, R. and R.M. Akers. 2000. Casein secretion and cytological differentiation in mammary tissue from bulls of high or low genetic merit. J. Dairy Sci. 83:2261–2268.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Ford, J.A. Jr and C.S. Park. 2001. Nutritionally directed compensatory growth enhances heifer development and lactation potential. J. Dairy Sci. 84:1669–1678.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Forsyth, I.A., G. Gabai, and G. Morgan. 1999. Spatial and temporal expression of insulin-like growth factor-I, insulin-like growth factor-II and the insulin-like growth factor-I receptor in the sheep fetal mammary gland. J. Dairy Res 66:35–44.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Gardner, R.W., J.D. Schuh, and L.G. Vargas. 1977. Accelerated growth and early breeding of Holstein heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 60:1941–1948.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Gaynor, P.J., D.R. Waldo, A.V. Capuco, R.A. Erdman, and L.W. Douglass. 1995. Effects of prepubertal growth rate and diet on lipid metabolism in lactating Holstein cows. J. Dairy Sci. 78:1534–1543.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Giguere, V. 2002. To ERR in the estrogen pathway. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 13:220–225.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Ginger, M.R., M.F. Gonzalez-Rimbau, J.P. Gay, and J.M. Rosen. 2001. Persistent changes in gene expression induced by estrogen and progesterone in the rat mammary gland. Mol. Endocrinol. 15:1993–2009.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Ginger, M.R. and J.M. Rosen. 2003. Pregnancy-induced changes in cell-fate in the mammary gland. Breast Cancer Res. 5:192–197.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Gluckman, P.D., M.A. Hanson, and A.S. Beedle. 2007. Early life events and their consequences for later disease: A life history and evolutionary perspective. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 19:1–19.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Grings, E.E., D.M. deAvila, R.G. Eggert, and J.J. Reeves. 1990. Conception rate, growth, and lactation of dairy heifers treated with recombinant somatotropin. J. Dairy Sci. 73:73–77.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Hansen, P.J. 1985. Seasonal modulation of puberty and the postpartum anestrus in cattle: a review. Livest. Prod. Sci. 12:309–328.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Hardville, D.A. and C.R. Henderson. 1966. Interrelationships among age, body weight, and production traits during first lactation of dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 49:1254–1261.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Harrison, R.D., I.P. Reynolds, and W. Little. 1983. A quantitative analysis of mammary glands of dairy heifers reared at different rates of live weight gain. J. Dairy Res. 50: 405–412.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Heinrichs, A.J. and G.L. Hargrove. 1987. Standards of weight and height for Holstein heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 70:653–660.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Hilakivi-Clarke, L., R. Clarke, and M. Lippman. 1999. The influence of maternal diet on breast cancer risk among female offspring. Nutrition 15:392–401.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Hilakivi-Clarke, L., A. Shajahan, B. Yu, and S. de Assis. 2006. Differentiation of mammary gland as a mechanism to reduce breast cancer risk. J. Nutr. 136:2697S–2699S.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Hoffman, P.C. 1997. Optimum body size of Holstein replacement heifers. J. Anim. Sci. 75:836–845.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Hogg, N.A., C.J. Harrison, and C. Tickle. 1983. Lumen formation in the developing mouse mammary gland. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 73:39–57.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Houseknecht, K.L., D.E. Bauman, D.G. Fox, and D.F. Smith. 1992. Abomasal infusion of casein enhances nitrogen retention in somatotropin- treated steers. J. Nutr. 122:1717–1725.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Hovey, R.C., J.F. Trott, and B.K. Vonderhaar. 2002. Establishing a framework for the functional mammary gland: from endocrinology to morphology. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 7:17–38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Humphreys, R.C., M. Krajewska, S. Krnacik, R. Jaeger, H. Weiher, S. Krajewski, J.C. Reed, and J.M. Rosen. 1996. Apoptosis in the terminal endbud of the murine mammary gland: A mechanism of ductal morphogenesis. Development 122:4013–4022.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Hussein, H.S. and J.M. Brasel. 2001. Toxicity, metabolism, and impact of mycotoxins on humans and animals. Toxicology 167:101–134.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Katzenellenbogen, B.S., M.M. Montano, T.R. Ediger, J. Sun, K. Ekena, G. Lazennec, P.G. Martini, E.M. McInerney, R. Delage-Mourroux, K. Weis, and J.A. Katzenellenbogen. 2000. Estrogen receptors: selective ligands, partners, and distinctive pharmacology. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 55:163–193.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Kewon, J.F. and R.W. Everett. 1986. Effect of days carried calf, days dry, and weight of first calf heifers on yield. J. Dairy Sci. 69:1891–1896.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Kim, H., J. Xu, Y. Su, H. Xia, L. Li, G. Peterson, J. Murphy-Ullrich, and S. Barnes. 2001. Actions of the soy phytoestrogen genistein in models of human chronic disease: potential involvement of transforming growth factor beta. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 29:216–222.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Kleinberg, D.L. 1997. Early mammary development: growth hormone and IGF-1. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 2:49–57.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Kleinberg, D.L., M. Feldman, and W. Ruan. 2000. IGF-I: an essential factor in terminal end bud formation and ductal morphogenesis. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 5:7–17.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Knabel, M., S. Kolle, and F. Sinowatz. 1998. Expression of growth hormone receptor in the bovine mammary gland during prenatal development. Anat. Embryol. (Berl) 198:163–169.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Kordon, E.C. and GH. Smith. 1998. An entire functional mammary gland may comprise the progeny from a single cell. Development 125:1921–1930.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Kostelac, D., G. Rechkemmer, and K. Briviba. 2003. Phytoestrogens modulate binding response of estrogen receptors alpha and beta to the estrogen response element. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51:7632–7635.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Lamartiniere, C.A. 2002. Timing of exposure and mammary cancer risk. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 7:67–76.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Lammers, B.P., A.J. Heinrichs, and R.S. Kensinger. 1999. The effects of accelerated growth rates and estrogen implants in prepubertal Holstein heifers on estimates of mammary development and subsequent reproduction and milk production. J. Dairy Sci. 82:1753–1764.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Lammers, B.P., A.J. Heinrichs, and R.S. Kensinger. 1999. The effects of accelerated growth rates and estrogen implants in prepubertal Holstein heifers on growth, feed efficiency, and blood parameters. J. Dairy Sci. 82:1746–1752.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Li, R.W., M.J. Meyer, C.P. Van Tassell, T.S. Sonstegard, E.E. Connor, M.E. Van Amburgh, Y.R. Boisclair, and A.V. Capuco. 2006. Identification of estrogen-responsive genes in the parenchyma and fat pad of the bovine mammary gland by microarray analysis. Physiol. Genomics 27:42–53.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Lin, C.L. and H.L. Buttle. 1991. Progesterone receptor in the mammary tissue of pregnant and lactating gilts and the effect of tamoxifen treatment during late gestation. J. Endocrinol. 130:251–257.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Little, W. and R.M. Kay. 1977. The effects of rapid rearing and early calving on the subsequent performance of dairy heifers. Anim. Prod. 29:131–142.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Lucas, A. 1998. Programming by early nutrition: an experimental approach. J. Nutr. 128:401S–406S.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Lucas, A., B.A. Baker, M. Desai, and C.N. Hales. 1996. Nutrition in pregnant or lactating rats programs lipid metabolism in the offspring. Br. J. Nutr. 76:605–612.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Lyons, W.R. 1958. Hormonal synergism in mammary growth. Proc. Royal. Soc. B149: 303–325.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Mallepell, S., A. Krust, P. Chambon, and C. Brisken. 2006. Paracrine signaling through the epithelial estrogen receptor alpha is required for proliferation and morphogenesis in the mammary gland. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 103:2196–2201.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Markusfeld, O. and E. Ezra. 1993. Body measurements, metritis, and postpartum performance of first lactation cows. J. Dairy Sci. 76:3771–3777.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. McCann, A.H., N. Miller, A. O’Meara, I. Pedersen, K. Keogh, T. Gorey, and P.A. Dervan. 1996. Biallelic expression of the IGF2 gene in human breast disease. Hum. Mol. Genet. 5:1123–1127.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Mellor, D.J. 1987. Nutritional effects on the fetus and mammary gland during pregnancy. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 46:249–257.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Meyer, M.J., A.V. Capuco, Y.R. Boisclair, and M.E. Van Amburgh. 2006. Estrogen-dependent responses of the mammary fat pad in prepubertal dairy heifers. J. Endocrinol. 190:819–827.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Meyer, M.J., A.V. Capuco, D.A. Ross, L.M. Lintault, and M.E. Van Amburgh. 2006. Developmental and nutritional regulation of the prepubertal bovine mammary gland: II. Epithelial cell proliferation, parenchymal accretion rate, and allometric growth. J. Dairy Sci. 89: 4298–4304.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Meyer, M.J., A.V. Capuco, D.A. Ross, L.M. Lintault, and M.E. Van Amburgh. 2006. Developmental and nutritional regulation of the prepubertal heifer mammary gland: I. Parenchyma and fat pad mass and composition. J. Dairy Sci. 89:4289–4297.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Michels, K.B. and F. Xue. 2006. Role of birthweight in the etiology of breast cancer. Int. J. Cancer 119:2007–2025.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Miller, D.M., B.P. Stuart, W.A. Crowel, R.J. Cole, A.J. Goven, and J. Brown. 1978. Aflatoxin in swine: its effect on immunity and relationship to salmonellosis. Am. Assoc. Vet. Lab. Diagn. 21:135–142.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Moallem, U., G.E. Dahl, E.K. Duffey, A.V. Capuco, and R.A. Erdman. 2004. Bovine somatotropin and rumen-undegradable protein effects on skeletal growth in prepubertal dairy heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 87:3881–3888.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Moallem, U., G.E. Dahl, E.K. Duffey, A.V. Capuco, D.L. Wood, K.R. McLeod, R.L. Baldwin 6th, and R.A. Erdman. 2004. Bovine somatotropin and rumen-undegradable protein effects in prepubertal dairy heifers: effects on body composition and organ and tissue weights. J. Dairy Sci. 87:3869–3880.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Morris, R.J., S.M. Fischer, and T.J. Slaga. 1985. Evidence that the centrally and peripherally located cells in the murine epidermal proliferative unit are two distinct cell populations. J. Invest. Dermatol. 84:277–281.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Oftedal, O.T. 2002. The mammary gland and its origin during synapsid evolution. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 7:225–252.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Oftedal, O.T. 2002. The origin of lactation as a water source for parchment-shelled eggs. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 7: 253–266.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Oommen, A.M., J.B. Griffin, G. Sarath, and J. Zempleni. 2005. Roles for nutrients in epigenetic events. J. Nutr. Biochem. 16:74–77.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Park, C.S. 2005. Role of compensatory mammary growth in epigenetic control of gene expression. FASEB J. 19:1586–1591.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Park, C.S., M.G. Baik, W.L. Keller, I.E. Berg, and G.M. Erickson. 1989. Role of compensatory growth in lactation: a stair-step nutrient regimen modulates differentiation and lactation of bovine mammary gland. Growth Dev. Aging 53:159–166.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Park, C.S., R.B. Danielson, B.S. Kreft, S.H. Kim, Y.S. Moon, and W.L. Keller. 1998. Nutritionally directed compensatory growth and effects on lactation potential of developing heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 81:243–249.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Peters, R.R., L.T. Chapin, K.B. Leining, and H.A. Tucker. 1978. Supplemental lighting stimulates growth and lactation in cattle. Science 199:911–912.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Petitclerc, D., R.D. Kineman, S.A. Zinn, and H.A. Tucker. 1985. Mammary growth response of Holstein heifers to photoperiod. J. Dairy Sci. 68:86–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Plath, A., R. Einspanier, F. Peters, F. Sinowatz, and D. Schams. 1997. Expression of transforming growth factors alpha and beta-1 messenger RNA in the bovine mammary gland during different stages of development and lactation. J. Endocrinol. 155:501–511.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Plaut, K. 1993. Role of epidermal growth factor and transforming growth factors in mammary development and lactation. J. Dairy Sci. 76:1526–1538.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Potten, C.S., W.J. Hume, P. Reid, and J. Cairns. 1978. The segregation of DNA in epithelial stem cells. Cell 15:899–906.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Potten, C.S., G. Owen, and D. Booth. 2002. Intestinal stem cells protect their genome by selective segregation of template DNA strands. J. Cell Sci. 115:2381–2388.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Prelusky, D.B., P.M. Scott, H.L. Trenholm, and G.A. Lawrence. 1990. Minimal transmission of zearalenone to milk of dairy cows. J. Environ. Sci. Health B 25:87–103.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Purup, S., K. Sejrsen, J. Foldager, and R.M. Akers. 1993. Effect of exogenous bovine growth hormone and ovariectomy on prepubertal mammary growth, serum hormones and acute in-vitro proliferative response of mammary explants from Holstein heifers. J. Endocrinol. 139:19–26.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Purup, S., M. Vestergaard, and K. Sejrsen. 2000. Involvement of growth factors in the regulation of pubertal mammary growth in cattle. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 480:27–43.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Radcliff, R.P., M.J. VandeHaar, L.T. Chapin, R.E. Pilbeam, D.K. Beede, E.P. Stanisiewski, and H.A. Tucker. 2000. Effects of diet and injection of bovine somatotropin on prepubertal growth and first-lactation milk yields of Holstein cows. J. Dairy Sci. 83:23–29.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Radcliff, R.P., M.J. VandeHaar, A.L. Skidmore, L.T. Chapin, B.R. Tadke, J.W. Lloyd, E.P. Stanisiewski, and H.A. Tucker. 1997. Effects of diet and bovine somatotropin on heifer growth and mammary development. J. Dairy Sci. 80:1996–2003.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Ryan, F.P. 2006. Genomic creativity and natural selection. Biol. J. Linnean Soc. 88:655–672.

    Google Scholar 

  116. Santos, F. and W. Dean. 2004. Epigenetic reprogramming during early development in mammals. Reproduction 127:643–651.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Schams, D., S. Kohlenberg, W. Amselgruber, B. Berisha, M.W. Pfaffl, and F. Sinowatz. 2003. Expression and localisation of oestrogen and progesterone receptors in the bovine mammary gland during development, function and involution. J. Endocrinol. 177:305–317.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Schwertfeger, K.L., J.M. Rosen, and D.A. Cohen. 2006. Mammary gland macrophages: pleiotropic functions in mammary development. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 11:229–238.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Sejrsen, K. 1978. Mammary development and milk yield in relation to growth rate in dairy and dual-purpose heifers. Acta. Agriculturae Scandinavica 28:41–46.

    Google Scholar 

  120. Sejrsen, K. 1994. Relationships between nutrition, puberty and mammary development in cattle. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 53:103–111.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Sejrsen, K. and J. Foldager. 1992. Mammary growth and milk production capacity of replacemment heifers in relation to diet energy concentration and plasma hormone levels. Acta Agric. Scand. Sect. A. Anim. Sci. 42:99–105.

    Google Scholar 

  122. Sejrsen, K., J. Foldager, M.T. Sorensen, R.M. Akers, and D.E. Bauman. 1986. Effect of exogenous bovine somatotropin on pubertal mammary development in heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 69:1528–1535.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Sejrsen, K., J.T. Huber, and H.A. Tucker. 1983. Influence of amount fed on hormone concentrations and their relationship to mammary growth in heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 66:845–855.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Sejrsen, K., J.T. Huber, H.A. Tucker, and R.M. Akers. 1982. Influence of nutrition on mammary development in pre- and postpubertal heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 65:793–800.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Sejrsen, K. and S. Purup. 1997. Influence of prepubertal feeding level on milk yield potential of dairy heifers: a review. J. Anim. Sci. 75:828–835.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Sejrsen, K., S. Purup, M. Vestergaard, M.S. Weber, and C.H. Knight. 1999. Growth hormone and mammary development. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 17:117–129.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Shackleton, M., F. Vaillant, K.J. Simpson, J. Stingl, G.K. Smyth, M.L. Asselin-Labat, L. Wu, G.J. Lindeman, and J.E. Visvader. 2006. Generation of a functional mammary gland from a single stem cell. Nature 439:84–88.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Shinin, V., B. Gayraud-Morel, D. Gomes, and S. Tajbakhsh. 2006. Asymmetric division and cosegregation of template DNA strands in adult muscle satellite cells. Nat. Cell Biol. 8: 677–687.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Sieber, M., A.E. Freeman, and P.N. Hinz. 1988. Comparison between factor analysis from a phenotypic and genetic correlation matrix using linear type traits of Holstein dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 71:477–484.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Silva, L.F., J.S. Liesman, M.S. Nielsen Weber, and M.J. VandeHaar. 2003. Intramammary infusion of leptin decreases proliferation of mammary epithelial cells in prepubertal heifers. J. Dairy Sci. (Suppl. 1) 82:166.

    Google Scholar 

  131. Silva, L.F., M.J. VandeHaar, M.S. Weber Nielsen, and G.W. Smith. 2002. Evidence for a local effect of leptin in bovine mammary gland. J. Dairy Sci. 85:3277–3286.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Sinha, Y.N. and H.A. Tucker. 1969. Mammary development and pituitary prolactin level of heifers from birth through puberty and during the estrous cycle. J. Dairy Sci. 52:507–512.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Smith, G.H. 2005. Stem cells and mammary cancer in mice. Stem Cell Rev. 1:215–223.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Smith, G.H. 2005. Label-retaining epithelial cells in mouse mammary gland divide asymmetrically and retain their template DNA strands. Development 132:681–687.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Smith, G.H. and G. Chepko. 2001. Mammary epithelial stem cells. Microsc. Res. Tech. 52:190–203.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Smith, G.H. and D. Medina. 1988. A morphologically distinct candidate for an epithelial stem cell in mouse mammary gland. J. Cell Sci. 90:173–184.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Srinivasan, M., S.G. Laychock, D.J. Hill, and M.S. Patel. 2003. Neonatal nutrition: metabolic programming of pancreatic islets and obesity. Exp. Biol. Med. 228:15–23.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Sternlicht, M.D., S.W. Sunnarborg, H. Kouros-Mehr, Y. Yu, D.C. Lee, and Z. Werb. 2005. Mammary ductal morphogenesis requires paracrine activation of stromal EGFR via ADAM17-dependent shedding of epithelial amphiregulin. Development 132: 3923–3933.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Stingl, J., P. Eirew, I. Ricketson, M. Shackleton, F. Vaillant, D. Choi, H.I. Li, and C.J. Eaves. 2006. Purification and unique properties of mammary epithelial stem cells. Nature 439:993–997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Suetsugi, M., L. Su, K. Karlsberg, Y.C. Yuan, and S. Chen. 2003. Flavone and isoflavone phytoestrogens are agonists of estrogen-related receptors. Mol. Cancer Res. 1:981–991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Swanson, E.W. 1967. Optimum growth patterns for dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 50:244–252.

    Google Scholar 

  142. Ting, A.H., K.M. McGarvey, and S.B. Baylin. 2006. The cancer epigenome-components and functional correlates. Genes Dev. 20:3215–3231.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Tomlinson, I.P. 2001. Mutations in normal breast tissue and breast tumours. Breast Cancer Res. 3:299–303.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Tsai, Y.C., Y. Lu, P.W. Nichols, G. Zlotnikov, P.A. Jones, and H.S. Smith. 1996. Contiguous patches of normal human mammary epithelium derived from a single stem cell: implications for breast carcinogenesis. Cancer Res. 56:402–404.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Tsubura, A., N. Uehara, Y. Kiyozuka, and N. Shikata. 2005. Dietary factors modifying breast cancer risk and relation to time of intake. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 10:87–100.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Van Amburgh, M.E., D.M. Galton, D.E. Bauman, R.W. Everett, D.G. Fox, L.E. Chase, and H.N. Erb. 1998. Effects of three prepubertal body growth rates on performance of Holstein heifers during first lactation. J. Dairy Sci. 81:527–538.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Van Amburgh, M.E., D.M. Galton, D.G. Fox, and D.E. Bauman, 1991. Optimizing heifer growth. p. 85–93. In Proceedings of Cornell Nutrition Conference. Department of Animal Science and Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University.

    Google Scholar 

  148. van Heugten, E., J.W. Spears, M.T. Coffey, E.B. Kegley, and M.A. Qureshi. 1994. The effect of methionine and aflatoxin on immune function in weanling pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 72:658–664.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. VandeHaar, M.J. Feeding heifers for lifelong profit. p. 101–109. In Proceedings of Southwest Nutrition and Management Conference, Department of Animal Science, University of Arizona.

    Google Scholar 

  150. Wagner, K.U. and G.H. Smith. 2005. Pregnancy and stem cell behavior. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 10:25–36.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Waldo, D.R., A.V. Capuco, and C.E. Rexroad Jr. 1998. Milk production of Holstein heifers fed either alfalfa or corn silage diets at two rates of daily gain. J. Dairy Sci. 81:756–764.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Waldo, D.R., H.F. Tyrrell, A.V. Capuco, and C.E. Rexroad Jr. 1997. Components of growth in Holstein heifers fed either alfalfa or corn silage diets to produce two daily gains. J. Dairy Sci. 80:1674–1684.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Wallace, C. 1953. Observations on mammary development in calves and lambs. J. Agric. Sci. 43:413–421.

    Google Scholar 

  154. Weaver, G.A., H.J. Kurtz, J.C. Behrens, T.S. Robison, B.E. Seguin, F.Y. Bates, and C.J. Mirocha. 1986. Effect of zearalenone on the fertility of virgin dairy heifers. Am. J. Vet. Res. 47:1395–1397.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Weaver, G.A., H.J. Kurtz, J.C. Behrens, T.S. Robison, B.E. Seguin, F.Y. Bates, and C.J. Mirocha. 1986. Effect of zearalenone on dairy cows. Am. J. Vet. Res. 47:1826–1828.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Whitacre, M.D. and W.R. Threlfall. 1981. Effects of ergocryptine on plasma prolactin, luteinizing hormone, and progesterone in the periparturient sow. Am. J. Vet. Res. 42:1538–1541.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Wiesen, J.F., P. Young, Z. Werb, and G.R. Cunha. 1999. Signaling through the stromal epidermal growth factor receptor is necessary for mammary ductal development. Development 126:335–44.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Wogan, G.N. 1966. Chemical nature and biological effects of the aflatoxins. Bacteriol. Rev. 30:460–470.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Zinedine, A., J.M. Soriano, J.C. Molto, and J. Manes. 2007. Review on the toxicity, occurrence, metabolism, detoxification, regulations and intake of zearalenone: An oestrogenic mycotoxin. Food Chem. Toxicol. 45:1–18.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Bovine Functional Genomics Laboratory, USDA-ARS, 20705, Beltsville, MD, USA

    Anthony V. Capuco

  2. Department of Dairy Science, Virginia Tech, 24061, Blacksburg, VA, USA

    R. Michael Akers

Authors
  1. Anthony V. Capuco
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. R. Michael Akers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Anthony V. Capuco .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. NSW Department of Primary Industries, Trevenna Road, Armidale, 2351, Australia

    Paul L. Greenwood

  2. Livestock Industries, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, CSIRO, Carmody Rd. 306, St. Lucia, 4067, Australia

    Alan W. Bell

  3. Fac. Natural & Agricultural Sciences, School of Animal Biology, University of Western Australia, Crawley, 6009, Australia

    Philip E. Vercoe

  4. Agency (IAEA), Division of Nuclear Techniques in, International Atomic Energy, Wagramer Str. 5, Wien, 1400, Austria

    Gerrit J. Viljoen

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Capuco, A.V., Akers, R.M. (2009). Management and Environmental Influences on Mammary Gland Development and Milk Production. In: Greenwood, P., Bell, A., Vercoe, P., Viljoen, G. (eds) Managing the Prenatal Environment to Enhance Livestock Productivity. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3135-8_9

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation