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Fungal Disease Management in Environmentally Friendly Apple Production – A Review

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Climate Change, Intercropping, Pest Control and Beneficial Microorganisms

Part of the book series: Sustainable Agriculture Reviews ((SARV,volume 2))

Abstract

Many pesticides are used very effectively against fungal diseases in crop protection. However, the widespread use of synthetic pesticides in conventional fruit production clearly indicates that pesticides have several limitations and serious harmful effects on the environment and on human health. This prompted a serious need for a more environmentally benign view in the practice of fruit growing and particularly in plant protection, which also strengthened the concept of environment-friendly approach for apple. In this review article, the present status, possibilities and approaches towards fungal disease management for organic and integrated apple production systems, which are the most prominent environmentally friendly production systems of apple, are reviewed. The review focuses on the control of five important apple diseases: apple scab (Venturia inaequalis), apple powdery mildew (Podosphaera leucotricha), European canker (Nectria galligena), brown rot (Monilinia spp.) and the disease complex of flyspeck and sooty blotch. The first section of this study provides background information and basic features of current disease control in both apple production systems. Then, in the second section of this study, details of novel aspects of non-chemical control approaches against apple fungal diseases, including agronomic measures, mechanical, physical and biological control options as well as essential features of apple cultivar resistance to fungal diseases are given. The overview on five groups of agronomic measures: (1) cropping system and cover crop, (2) plant material and planting, (3) pruning and canopy management, (4) orchard floor management and (5) nutrient supply and harvest, and another five groups of mechanical and physical control methods: (1) pruning, (2) removal of inoculum sources, (3) shredding of leaf litter, (4) burying of inoculum sources and (5) flaming of leaf litter, showed that these non-chemical control measures are one of the most essential approaches for reducing the infection potential of inoculum sources in apple orchards. However, most of these methods are not widely spread in the apple-growing practice due to their high labour costs and/or time limits during the season. We showed that expert-system-based automatisation in the future may greatly enhance the effective integration of these methods into apple growing. We also described almost 30 biological control options, including antagonists, extracts/oils of plants and composts, which were explored recently against fungal diseases of apple, though only few of them are commercially available for the apple-growing practice. Most of these biological control options are suitable only for organic apple growing, as their effectiveness against the key fungal diseases is not able to fulfil the requirements for integrated apple orchards or they are not substantially cost-effective. Developing an effective biological control against polycyclic fungal diseases of apple will be a great challenge in the future for preharvest disease management programmes. In our literature analyses, host resistance, based on breeding programmes for multiple disease resistance, was evaluated as the greatest potential in the effective disease management of environmentally friendly apple production systems. Theoretically, aiming for complete host disease resistance would result in eliminating one of the basic elements of the epidemic triangle and omission of chemical control approaches from disease management of apple.

In the third section of this study, developments in chemical control options for individual diseases are described presenting recently explored knowledge on approved fungicidal products in integrated and organic disease management. Efficacy evaluations of fungicidal products coupled with recent developments on disease-warning systems as well as season-long spray schedules for each disease are discussed for both integrated and organic apple orchards. In addition, the main features of six inorganic chemical compounds, copper, lime sulphur, elemental sulphur, bicarbonates, hydrated lime and kaolin, are described for organic apple production. Then in the fourth section of this study, non-chemical and chemical control approaches are integrated into a multiple management tactic across all fungal diseases and are specified for integrated and for organic apple production systems. Here it was shown that in the past 20 years continued developments of disease-warning systems and host resistance to fungal pathogens, as well as incorporation of some non-chemical control options into fungal disease management of apple resulted in a considerable reduction in the number of fungicide sprays of the season-long disease management programmes. In the final section, suggestions and future trends are given for further improvements in fungal disease management for the two environmentally friendly apple production systems. Finally, it was concluded that the challenge for apple integrated pest management (IPM) programmes in the twenty-first century is to complete the fourth, final IPM level, which supplements IPM level 3 with cultural, social and political realms. While in organic apple orchards, the most essential task is to develop effective non-chemical control options that are practically feasible and can be incorporated easily into the orchard management practices.

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Abbreviations

AUDPC:

= area under the disease progress curve

BCA:

= biological control agent

CLW:

= cumulative leaf wetting

cv.:

= cultivars

CWE:

= compost water extract

DMI:

= demethylation inhibitors

EBI:

= ergosterol-biosynthesis inhibitors

FRAC:

= Fungicide Resistance Action Committee

GSE:

= grapefruit seed extract

IFOAM:

= International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements

IPM:

= integrated pest management

LWD:

= leaf wetness duration

MPH:

= mono-potassium phosphate

PAD:

= potential ascospore dose

PBC:

= potassium bicarbonate

PF:

= petal fall

QoI:

= quinone outside inhibitors

SBC:

= sodium bicarbonate

SMS:

= spent mushroom substrate

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Acknowledgements

The author thanks Dr. A. F. Fieldsend (University of Debrecen, Centre for Land Utilisation, Technology and Regional Development) and Dr. J. M. Gáll (University of Debrecen, Institute of Mathematics and Informatics) for their critical reading of the manuscript and valuable suggestions. Thanks are also due to J. Holb and F. Abonyi for their excellent cooperation. This research was supported partly by a grant of the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund and a János Bolyai Research Fellowship awarded to I.J. Holb.

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  1. Centre for Agricultural Sciences and Engineering, University of Debrecen, H-4015, Debrecen, Hungary

    Imre J. Holb

  2. Plant Protection Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-1525, Budapest, Hungary

    Imre J. Holb

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  1. INRA-CMSE-PME, rue Sully 17, Dijon CX, 21065, France

    Eric Lichtfouse

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Holb, I.J. (2009). Fungal Disease Management in Environmentally Friendly Apple Production – A Review. In: Lichtfouse, E. (eds) Climate Change, Intercropping, Pest Control and Beneficial Microorganisms. Sustainable Agriculture Reviews, vol 2. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2716-0_10

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