Abstract
The population of both the developed and developing world is aging due to the longer life expectancy and declining fertility. Owing to the consequent rapid growth of the elderly population, dementia has become a major problem for the health care systems and public health planning. The world population aged 60 and over was 488 million in 1990 and will be about 1,363 million in 2030, with an increase of 180%. In developed countries the number of elderly is projected to increase from 203 to 358 million during the period 1990–2030, with a percentage increase of 76.3%. Developing countries are facing an even more dramatic demographic transition: the number of elderly is estimated to grow from 286 million in 1990 to 1,005 million in 2030, with an increase of 251%. In 1990 developing countries contained 58% of the world’s elderly, and in 2030 about two thirds of the total elderly population will be dwelling in these countries [1]. Given that age is the most substantiated risk factor for dementia, the aging of the population implies a growing number of persons at risk for dementia.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
The World Bank (1993) World Development Report 1993. Oxford University Press, New York
Murray JLC, Lopez AD (1996) Evidence-based health policy lessons from the Global Burden of Disease Study. Science 274: 740–743
Rorsman B, Hagnell O, Lanke J (1985) Prevalence of age psychosis and mortality among age psychotics in the Lundby Study. Neuropsychobiology 13: 167–172
Bachman DL, Wolf PA, Linn R, Knoefel JE, Cobb J, Belanger A, D’Agostino RB, White LR (1992) Prevalence of dementia and probable senile dementia of the Alzheimer type in the Framingham Study. Neurology 42: 115–119
Copeland JRM, Davidson IA, Dewey ME, Gilmor C, Larkin BA, McWilliam C, Saunders PA, Scott A, Sharma V, Sullivan C (1992) Alzheimer’s disease, other dementias, depression and pseudodementia: prevalence, incidence and three-year outcome in Liverpool. Br J Psychiatry 161: 230–239
Folstein MF, Bassett SS, Anthony JC, Romanoski AJ, Nestadt GR (1991) Dementia: case ascertainment in a community survey. J Gerontol 46: M132–M138
Zhang M, Katzman R, Salmon D, Jin H, Cai G, Wang Z, Qu G, Grant I, Yu E, Levy P, Klauber MR, Liu WT (1990) The prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease in Shangai, China: impact of age, gender and education. Ann Neurol 27: 428–437
Lobo A, Saz P, Marcos G, Dia JL, De-la-Camara C (1995) The prevalence of dementia and depression in the elderly community in a southern European population. The Zaragoza Study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52: 497–506
Beard CM, Kokmen E, Offord K, Kurland LT (1991) Is the prevalence of dementia changing? Neurology 41: 1911–1914
O’Connor DW, Pollitt PA, Hyde JB, Fellows JL, Miller ND, Brook CP, Reiss BB, Roth M (1989) The prevalence of dementia as measured by the Cambridge Mental Disorders of the Elderly Examination. Acta Psychiatr Scand 79: 190–198
Rocca WA, Hofman A, Brayne C, Breteler MMB, Clarke M, Copeland JRM, Dartigues JF, Engedal K, Hagnell O, Heeren TJ, Jonker C, Lindesay J, Lobo A, Mann AH, Mölsä P, Morgan K, O’Connor DW, da Silva Droux A, Sulkava R, Kay DWK, Amaducci L, for the EURODEM Prevalence Research Group (1991) The prevalence of vascular dementia in Europe: facts and fragments from 1980-1990 studies. Ann Neurol 30: 817–824
Ueda K, Kawano H, Hasuo Y, Fujishima M (1992) Prevalence and etiology of dementia in a Japanese community. Stroke 23: 798–803
Copeland JRM, Dewey ME, Wood N, Searle R, Davidson IA, McWilliam C (1987) Range of mental illness among the elderly in the community: prevalence in Liverpool using the GMS-AGECAT Package. Br J Psychiatry 150: 815–823
Fratiglioni L, Grut M, Forsell Y, Viitanen M, Grafström M, Holmén K, Ericsson K, Bäckman L, Ahlbom A, Winblad B (1991) Prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias in an elderly urban population: relationship with age, sex and education. Neurology 41: 1886–1892
Canadian Study of Health and Aging Working Group (1994) Canadian Study of Health and Aging: study methods and prevalence of dementia. Can Med Assoc J 150: 899–913
Rocca WA, Bonaiuto S, Lippi A, Luciani P, Turtù F, Cavarzeran F, Amaducci L (1990) Prevalence of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease and other dementing disorders: a door-to-door survey in Appignano, Macerata Province, Italy. Neurology 40: 626–631
Ott A, Breteler MMB, van Harskamp F, Claus JJ, van der Cammen TJM, Grobbee DE, Hofman A (1995) Prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia: association with education. The Rotterdam Study. BMJ 310: 970–973
Ogura C, Nakamoto H, Uema T, Yamamoto K, Yonemori T, Yoshimura T and the Cosepo Group (1995) Prevalence of senile dementia in Okinawa, Japan. Int J Epidemiol 24: 373–379
Huppert FA, Brayne C, O’Connor D (eds) (1994) Dementia and normal ageing. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Ritchie K, Kildea D, Robine JM (1992) The relationship between age and the prevalence of senile dementia: a meta-analysis of recent data. Int J Epidemiol 21: 763–769
Ritchie K, Kildea D (1995) Is senile dementia “age-related” or “ageing-related”? — evidence from meta-analysis of dementia prevalence in the oldest old. Lancet 346: 931–934
Beard CM, Kokmen E, O’Brien PC, Kurland LT (1995) The prevalence of dementia is changing over time in Rochester, Minnesota. Neurology 45: 75–79
Schoenberg BS, Anderson DW, Haerer ME (1985) Severe dementia prevalence and clinical features in a biracial US population. Arch Neurol 42: 740–743
Skoog I, Nilsson L, Palmertz B, Andreasson LA, Svanborg A (1993) A population-based study of dementia in 85-year-olds. N Engl J Med 328: 153–158
Homma A, Niina R (1988) International views: research on Alzheimer’s disease in Japan. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 2: 366–374
Takeya S (1966) Epidemiological studies on cerebrovascular diseases in Hisayama, Kyushu, Japan. Fukuoka Acta Med 57: 994–1019
Urakami K, Igo M, Takahashi K (1987) An epidemiologic study of cerebrovascular disease in western Japan: with special reference to transient ischemic attacks. Stroke 18: 396–401
Brown RG, Marsden CD (1984) How common is dementia in Parkinson’s disease? Lancet 1: 1262–1265
Aarsland D, Tandberg E, Larsen JP, Cummings JL (1996) Frequency of dementia in Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 53: 538–542
Sutcliffe RL, Prior R, Mawby B, McQuillan WJ (1985) Parkinson’s disease in the district of the Northampton Health Authority, United Kingdom. A study of prevalence and disability. Acta Neurol Scand 72: 363–379
Tison F, Dartigues JF, Auriacombe S, Letenneur L, Boller F, Alpérovitch A (1995) Dementia in Parkinson’s disease: a population-based study in ambulatory and institutionalized individuals. Neurology 45: 705–708
Mayeux R, Denaro J, Hemenegildo N, Marder K, Tang MX, Cote LJ, Stern Y (1992) A population-based investigation of Parkinson’s disease with and without dementia. Arch Neurol 49: 492–497
Haase GR (1977) Disease presenting as dementia. In: Wells CE (ed) Dementia. Davis, Philadelphia, pp 26–27
Clarfield AM (1988) The reversible dementias: do they reverse? Ann Intern Med 109: 476–486
McArthur JC, Cohen BA, Seines OA, Kumar AJ, Cooper K, McArthur JH, Soucy G, Cornblath DR, Chmiel JS, Wang MC (1989) Low prevalence of neurological and neuropsychological abnormalities in otherwise healthy HIV-1-infected individuals: results from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Ann Neurol 26: 601–611
Janssen RS, Nwanyanwu OC, Selik RM, Stehr-Green JK (1992) Epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus encephalopathy in the United States. Neurology 42: 1472–1476
McArthur JC (1987) Neurologic manifestations of AIDS. Medicine 66: 407–437
Price RW, Brew BJ (1988) The AIDS dementia complex. J Infect Dis 158: 1079–1083
McArthur JC, Hoover DR, Bacellar H, Miller EN, Cohen BA, Becker JT, Graham NMH, McArthur JH, Seines OA, Jacobson L, Visscher BR, Concha M, Saah A for the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (1993) Dementia in AIDS patients: incidence and risk factors. Neurology 43: 2245–2252
Osuntokun BO, Ogunniyi AO, Lekwauwa UG (1992) Alzheimer’s disease in Nigeria. Afr J Med Sci 21: 71–77
Hendrie HC, Osuntokun BO, Hall KS, Ogunniyi AO, Hui SL, Unverzagt FW, Gureje O, Rodenberg CA, Baiyewu O, Musick, BS Adeyinka A, Farlow MR, Oluwole SO, Class CA, Komolafe O (1995) Prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease and dementia in two communities: Nigerian Africans and African Americans. Am J Psychiatry 152: 1485–1492
Bachman DL, Wolf PA, Linn RT, Knoefel JE, Cobb JL, Belanger AJ, White LR, D’Agostino RB (1993) Incidence of dementia and probable Alzheimer’s disease in a general population: the Framingham Study. Neurology 43: 515–519
Bickel H, Cooper B (1994) Incidence and relative risk of dementia in an urban elderly population: findings of a prospective field study. Psychol Med 24: 179–192
Letenneur L, Commenges D, Dartigues JF, Barberger-Gateau P (1994) Incidence of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease in elderly community residents of south-western France. Int J Epidemiol 23: 1256–1261
Morgan K, Lilley JM, Arie T, Byrne EJ, Jones R, Waite J (1993) Incidence of dementia in a representative British sample. Br J Psychiatry 163: 467–470
Aronson MK, Ooi WL, Geva DL, Masur D, Blau A, Frishman W (1991) Dementia. Agedependent incidence, prevalence and mortality in the old old. Arch Intern Med 151: 989–992
Boothby H, Blizard R, Livingston G, Mann AH (1994) The Gospel Oak Study stage III: the incidence of dementia. Psychol Med 24: 89–95
Paykel ES, Brayne C, Huppert FA, Gill C, Barkley C, Gehlhaar E, Beardsall L, Girling DM, Pollitt P, O’Connor D (1994) Incidence of dementia in a population older than 75 years in the United Kingdom. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51: 325–332
Rorsman B, Hagnell O, Lanke J (1986) Prevalence and incidence of senile and multiinfarct dementia in the Lundby Study: a comparison between the time periods 1947-1957 and 1957-1972. Neuropsychobiology 15: 122–129
Hagnell O, Öjesjö L, Rorsman B (1992) Incidence of dementia in the Lundby Study. Neuroepidemiology 11[Suppl 1]: 61–66
Hebert LE, Scherr PA, Beckett LA, Albert MS, Pilgrim DM, Chown MJ, Funkenstein HH, Evans DA (1995) Age-specific incidence of Alzheimer’s disease in a community population. JAMA 273: 1354–1359
Kokmen E, Beard CM, O’Brien PC, Offord KP, Kurland LT (1993) Is the incidence of dementing illness changing? A 25-year time trend study in Rochester, Minnesota (1960-1984). Neurology 43: 1887–1892
Kokmen E, Chandra V, Schoenberg BS (1988) Trends in incidence of dementing illness in Rochester, Minnesota, in three quinquennal periods, 1960-1974. Neurology 38: 975–980
Schoenberg BS, Kokmen E, Okazaki H (1987) Alzheimer’s disease and other dementing illnesses in a defined United States population: incidence rates and clinical features. Ann Neurol 22: 724–729
Hagnell O, Franck A, Gräsbeck A, Öhman R, Öjesjö L, Otterbeck L, Rorsman B (1992) Vascular dementia in the Lundby Study. Neuropsychobiology 26: 43–49
van Duijn CM, Stijnen T, Hofman A (1991) Overview of the EURODEM Collaborative Re-Analysis of Case-Control Studies. Int J Epidemiol 20[Suppl 2]: 4–12
Graves AB, White E, Koepsell TD, Reifler BV, van Belle G, Larson EB, Raskind M (1990) The association between head trauma and Alzheimer’s disease. Am J Epidemiol 131: 491–501
Roberts GW, Allsop D, Bruton C (1989) The occult aftermath of boxing. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 15: 273–274
Aronson MK, Ooi WL, Morgenstern H, Hafner A, Masur D, Crystal H, Frishman WH, Fisher D, Katzman R (1990) Women, myocardial infarction and dementia in the very old. Neurology 40: 1102–1106
Sparks DL, Hunsaker JC, Scheff SW, Kryscic RF, Henson JL, Markesbery WR (1990) Cortical senile plaques in coronary artery disease, aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol Aging 11: 601–608
Katzman R, Kawas C (1994) The epidemiology of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. In: Terry RD, Katzman R, Bick KL (eds) Alzheimer disease. Raven, New York, pp 105–122
Devanand DP, Sano M, Tang MX, Taylor S, Gurland BJ, Wilder D, Stern Y, Mayeux R (1996) Depressed mood and the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease in the elderly living in the community. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53: 175–182
Brenner DE, Kukull WA, van Belle G, Bowen JD, McCormick WC, Teri L, Larson EB (1993) Relationship between cigarette smoking and Alzheimer’s disease in a population-based case-control study. Neurology 43: 293–300
van Duijn CM, Hofman A (1991) Relation between nicotine intake and Alzheimer’s disease. BMJ 302: 1491–1494
Graves AB, van Duijn CM, Chandra V, Fratiglioni L, Heyman A, Jorm AF, Kokmen E, Kondo K, Mortimer JA, Rocca WA (1991) Alcohol and tobacco consumption as risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease: a collaborative re-analysis of case-control studies. Int J Epidemiol 20[Suppl 2]: S48–S57
Nordberg A, Lundqvist H, Hartvig P, Lilja A, Langstrom B (1995) Kinetic analysis of regional (S)(-)11C-nicotine binding in normal and Alzheimer brains — in vivo assessment using positron emission tomography. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 9: 21–27
Whitehouse PJ, Kalaria RN (1995) Nicotinic receptors and neuro degenerative dementing diseases: basic research and clinical implications. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 9[Suppl 2]:3–5
Wilson AL, Langley LK, Monley J, Bauer T, Rottunda S, McFalls E, Kovera C, McCarten JR (1995) Nicotine patches in Alzheimer’s disease: pilot study on learning, memory, and safety. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 51: 509–514
Canadian Study of Health and Aging Working Group (1994) The Canadian Study of Health and Aging: risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease in Canada. Neurology 44: 2073–2080
Forster DP, Newens AJ, Kay DW, Edwardson JA (1995) Risk factors in clinically diagnosed presenile dementia of the Alzheimer type: a case-control study in northern England. J Epidemiol Community Health 49: 253–258
Prince M, Cullen M, Mann A (1994) Risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease: a case-control study based on the MRC elderly hypertension trial. Neurology 44: 97–104
Fielding JE (1985) Smoking: health effect and control. N Engl J Med 313: 555–561
Amaducci L, Maggi S, Di Carlo A, Baldereschi M, Volonnino G, Minicucci N, Grigoletto F, Lepore V, Carnazzo G, Bonaiuto S, Ghetti A, Gandolfo C, Franceschi M, D’Onofrio F, Battistin L, Scarlato G (1996) Education and age-associated neurological diseases. Eur J Neurol 3[Suppl 5]: 17–18
Bonaiuto S, Rocca WA, Lippi A, Giannandrea E, Mele M, Cavarzeran F, Amaducci L (1995) Education and occupation as risk factors for dementia: a population-based case-control study. Neuroepidemiology 14: 101–109
Callahan CM, Hall KS, Hui SL, Musick BS, Unverzagt FW, Hendrie HC (1996) Relationship of age, education, and occupation with dementia among a community-based sample of African Americans. Arch Neurol 53: 134–140
Dartigues JF, Gagnon M, Barberger-Gateau P, Mazaux JM, Commenges D, Letenneur L (1991) Occupation during life and memory performance in the elderly: results of the PAQUID Program. Neurology 41[Suppl 1]: 322
Hill L, Klauber MR, Salmon DP, Yu ES, Liu WT, Zhang M, Katzman R (1993) Functional status, education, and the diagnosis of dementia in the Shangai Survey. Neurology 43: 138–145
Korczyn AD, Kahana E, Galper Y (1991) Epidemiology of dementia in Ashkelon, Israel. Neuroepidemiology 10: 100
White L, Katzman R, Losonczy K, Salive M, Wallace R, Berkman L, Taylor J, Fillenbaum G, Havlik R (1994) Association of education with incidence of cognitive impairment in three established populations for epidemiologic studies of the elderly. J Clin Epidemiol 47: 363–374
Li G, Shen YC, Chen CH, Zhan YW, Li SR, Lu M (1991) A three-year follow-up study of age-related dementia in an urban area of Beijing. Acta Psychiatr Scand 83: 99–104
Stern Y, Gurland B, Tatemichi TK, Tang MX, Wilder D, Mayeux R (1994) Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease. JAMA 271: 1004–1010
Katzman R (1993) Views and reviews: education and the prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology 43: 13–20
Hamos JE, DeGennaro LJ, Drachman DA (1989) Synaptic loss in Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias. Neurology 39: 355–361
DeKosky ST, Scheff SW (1990) Synapse loss in frontal cortex biopsies in Alzheimer’s disease: correlation with cognitive severity. Ann Neurol 27: 457–464
Masliah E, Terry RD, Alford M, DeTeresa R, Hansen LA (1991) Cortical and subcortical patterns of synaptophysinlike immunoreactivity in Alzheimer’s disease. Am J Pathol 138: 235–246
Terry RD, Masliah E, Salmon DP, Butters N, DeTeresa R, Hill R, Hansen LA, Katzman R (1991) Physical basis of cognitive alterations in Alzheimer’s disease: synapse loss is the major correlate of cognitive impairment. Ann Neurol 30: 572–580
Baltes PB (1991) The many faces of human ageing: toward a psychological culture of old age. Psychol Med 21: 837–854
Koh K, Ray R, Lee J, Nair A, Ho T, Ang PC (1994) Dementia in elderly patients: can the 3R mental stimulation programme improve mental status? Age Ageing 23: 195–199
Yesavage JA (1985) Nonpharmacologic treatments for memory losses with normal aging. Am J Psychiatry 142: 600–605
Amaducci L, Fratiglioni L, Rocca WA, Fieschi C, Livrea P, Pedone D, Bracco L, Lippi A, Gandolfo C, Bino G, Prencipe M, Bonatti ML, Girotti F, Carella F, Tavolato B, Ferla S, Lenzi GL, Carolei A, Gambi A, Grigoletto F, Schoenberg BS (1986) Risk factors for clinically diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease: a case-control study of an Italian population. Neurology 36: 922–931
Beard CM, Kokmen E, Offord KP, Kurland LT (1992) Lack of association between Alzheimer’s disease and education, occupation, marital status, or living arrangement. Neurology 42: 2063–2068
Cobb JL, Wolf PA, Au R, White R, D’Agostino RB (1995) The effect of education on the incidence of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease in the Framingham Study. Neurology 45: 1707–1712
Fratiglioni L, Ahlbom A, Vitanen M, Winblad B (1993) Risk factors for late-onset Alzheimer’s disease: a population based, case-control study. Ann Neurol 33: 258–266
Yoshitake T, Kiyohara Y, Kato I, Ohmura T, Iwamoto H, Nakayama K, Ohmori S, Nomiyama K, Kawano H, Ueda K, Sueishi K, Tsuneyoshi M, Fujishima M (1995) Incidence and risk factors of vascular dementia and Alzheimer’s disease in a defined elderly Japanese population: the Hisayama Study. Neurology 45: 1161–1168
Garrison RJ, Gold RS, Wilson PW, Kannel WB (1993) Educational attainment and coronary heart disease risk: the Framingham Offspring Study. Prev Med 22: 54–64
van Duijn CM (1996) Epidemiology of the dementias: recent developments and new approaches. Neuroepidemiology 60: 478–488
Baldereschi M, Di Carlo A, Maggi S, Grigoletto F, Livrea P, Motta L, Bonaiuto S, Inzitari D, Loeb C, Canal N, Rengo F, Enzi G, Scarlato G, Amaducci L (1996) Estrogen replacement therapy and the risk of dementia in the Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging. Eur J Neurol 3: 85–86
Morrison A, Resnick S, Corrada M, Zonderman A, Kawas C (1996) A prospective study of estrogen replacement therapy and the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study on Aging. Neurology 46: A435–A436
Paganini-Hill A, Henderson VW (1994) Estrogen deficiency and risk of Alzheimer’s disease in women. Am J Epidemiol 140: 256
Tang MX, Jacobs D, Staern Y, Marder K, Schofield P, Gurland B, Andrews H, Mayeux R (1996) Effect of oestrogen during menopause on risk and age at onset of Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet 348: 429–432
Waring SC, Rocca WA, Petersen RC, Kokmen E (1997) Postmenopausal estrogen replacement therapy and Alzheimer’s disease: a population-based study in Rochester, Minnesota. Neurology 48: A79
Brenner DE, Kukull WA, Stergachis A, van Belle G, Bowen JD, McCormick WC, Teri L, Larson EB (1994) Postmenopausal estrogen replacement therapy and the risk of Alzheimer’s disease: a population-based case-control study. Am J Epidemiol 140: 262–267
Luine VN (1985) Estradiol increases choline acetyltransferase activity in specific basal forebrain nuclei and projection areas of female rats. Exp Neurol 89: 484–490
Gould E, Woolley CS, Frankfurt M, McEwen BS (1990) Gonadal steroids regulate dendritic spine density in hippocampal pyramidal cells in adulthood. J Neurosci 10: 1286–1291
Woolley CS, McEwen BS (1992) Estradiol mediates fluctuation in hippocampal synapse density during the estrous cycle in the adult rat. J Neurosci 12: 2549–2554
Honio H, Tanaka K, Kashiwagi T, Urabe M, Okada H, Hayashi M, Hayashi K (1995) Senile dementia-Alzheimer’s type and estrogen. Horm Metab Res 27: 204–207
McGeer PL, McGeer EG (1996) Anti-inflammatory drugs in the fight against Alzheimer’s disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 777: 213–220
Strittmatter WJ, Saunders AM, Schmechel D, Pericak-Vance M, Enghild J, Salvesen GS, Roses AD (1993) Apolipoprotein E: high-avidity binding to beta-amyloid and increased frequency of type 4 allele in late-onset familial Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90: 1977–1981
Writing Committee, Lancet Conference 1996 (1996) The challenge of the dementias. Lancet 347: 1303–1307
National Institute on Aging/Alzheimer’s Association Working Group (1996) Apolipoprotein E genotyping in Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet 347: 1091–1095
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1999 Springer-Verlag Italia
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Di Carlo, A., Baldereschi, M., Inzitari, D., Amaducci, L. (1999). Dementias, the Dimension of the Problem: Epidemiology Notes. In: Govoni, S., Bolis, C.L., Trabucchi, M. (eds) Dementias. Springer, Milano. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-88-470-2149-5_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-88-470-2149-5_1
Publisher Name: Springer, Milano
Print ISBN: 978-88-470-0048-3
Online ISBN: 978-88-470-2149-5
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive