Abstract
The marine and estuarine compartments are the storehouses of vast resources, but instrumentation sector is a vital wing not only to monitor the magnitude and variation of these resources but also to harness them in a cost-effective way. Research vessels from different countries are constantly monitoring the oceans and generating data on temperature, salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), nutrients chlorophyll and several other parameters. Many of these research vessels have sophisticated laboratories inside, where analysis of water sediment and other biological samples are carried out.
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Annexure 12A: Study on Soil Organic Carbon in the Intertidal Mudflats of Indian Sundarbans
Annexure 12A: Study on Soil Organic Carbon in the Intertidal Mudflats of Indian Sundarbans
12.1.1 1. Introduction
Human activities have led to considerable emissions of greenhouse gases (Murako 2004). In particular, for the period from 1980 to 1989, carbon dioxide emission from fossil-fuel burning and tropical deforestation amounted to 7.1 billion tons of carbon being released a year (Table 12A.1) (IPCC 1994). Increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration can account for about half of the carbon dioxide emission for this period (Siegenthaler and Sarmiento 1993). This has led to study the capacity of carbon sequestration in forests and other terrestrial and wetland ecosystems.
Most of the studies so far available are related to forest ecosystems and crops, and there is not enough information on carbon sequestration potential of wetland soil. Wetlands provide several important ecosystem services, among which soil carbon sequestration is most crucial particularly in the backdrop of rising carbon dioxide in the present century. Wetlands cover about 5 % of the terrestrial surface and are important carbon sinks containing 40 % of SOC at global level (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000). Estuarine wetlands have a capacity of carbon sequestration per unit area of approximately one order of magnitude greater than other systems of wetlands (Cerón-Bretón et al. 2010) and store carbon with a minimum emission of greenhouse gases due to inhibition of methanogenesis because of sulphate (Bridgham et al. 2006). The reservoirs of SOC, however, can act as sources or sinks of atmospheric carbon dioxide, depending on land use practices, climate, texture and topography (Vesterdal et al. 2002; Zinn et al. 2005; Homann et al. 2004; Shukla and Lal 2005).
Vertical patterns of SOC can contribute as an input or as an independent validation for biogeochemical models and thus provide valuable information for examining the responses of terrestrial ecosystems to global change (Jobb’agy and Jackson, 2000; Wang et al. 2004; Mi et al. 2008). A large number of biogeochemical models, however, do not contain explicit algorithms of belowground ecosystem structure and function (Jackson et al. 2000). Most of the studies primarily focused on the topsoil carbon stock, and carbon dynamics in deeper soil layers and driving factors behind vertical distributions of soil organic carbon remain poorly understood (Jobb’agy and Jackson, 2000; Gill et al. 1999; Meersmans et al. 2009). Thus, improved knowledge of distributions and determinants of SOC across different soil depth is essential to determine whether carbon in deep soil layers will react to global change and accelerate the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration (Meersmans et al. 2009; Fontaine et al. 2007).
With this background, the present study was undertaken to estimate the SOC in four different depths in the mangrove-dominated Indian Sundarbans that sustains some 34 true mangrove species and some 62 mangrove associate species (Mitra 2000). This deltaic lobe together with Bangladesh Sundarbans constitutes the world’s largest brackish water wetland. Hence, it is essential to establish a baseline data of soil carbon pool of this mangrove ecosystem. In this study, we used our unpublished data of SOC and bulk density to evaluate the spatial variations of OCD in the intertidal mudflats of western and eastern Indian Sundarbans that are markedly different with respect to anthropogenic activities and mangrove vegetation.
12.1.2 2. Materials and Methods
12.1.2.1 2.1 The Study Area
The Sundarban mangrove ecosystem covering about one million ha in the deltaic complex of the rivers Ganga, Brahmaputra and Meghna is shared between Bangladesh (62 %) and India (38 %) and is the world’s largest coastal wetland. Enormous load of sediments carried by the rivers contribute to its expansion and dynamics.
The Indian Sundarbans (between 21°13′N and 22°40′ N latitude and 88°03′E and 89°07′E longitude) is bordered by Bangladesh in the east, the Hooghly River (a continuation of the river Ganga) in the west, the Dampier and Hodges line in the north and the Bay of Bengal in the south. The important morphotypes of deltaic Sundarbans include beaches, mudflats, coastal dunes, sand flats, estuaries, creeks, inlets and mangrove swamps (Chaudhuri and Choudhury 1994). The temperature is moderate due to its proximity to the Bay of Bengal in the south. Average annual maximum temperature is around 35 °C. The summer (premonsoon) extends from the mid-March to mid-June and the winter (postmonsoon) from mid-November to February. The monsoon usually sets in around the mid of June and lasts up to the mid of October. Rough weather with frequent cyclonic depressions occurs during mid-March to mid-September. Average annual rainfall is 1920 mm. Average humidity is about 82 % and is more or less uniform throughout the year. This unique ecosystem is also the home ground of Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris). The deltaic complex sustains 102 islands, 48 of which are inhabited. The ecosystem is extremely prone to erosion, accretion, tidal surges and several natural disasters, which directly affect the top soil and the subsequent carbon density. The average tidal amplitude is around 3.0 m.
We conducted survey at 24 stations in the Indian Sundarban region in February, 2012. Station selection was primarily based considering the blocks in Indian Sundarbans.
12.1.2.2 2.2 Sampling
Table 12A.2 and Fig. 12A.1 represent our study site in which sampling plots of 10 m × 5 m were considered for each station. Care was taken to collect the samples within the same distance from the estuarine edge, tidal creeks and the same microtopography. Under such conditions, spatial variability of external parameters such as tidal amplitude and frequency of inundation (Ovalle et al. 1990) inputs of material from the adjacent bay/estuary and soil granulometry and salinity (Lacerda et al. 1993; Tanizaki 1994) are minimal.
Location of sampling stations
10 cores were collected from the selected plots in each station by inserting PVC core of known volume into the soil to a maximum depth of 0.40 m during low tide condition. Each core was sliced in 0.10 m layers up to 0.40 m depth. The uppermost 0.01 m, which frequently includes debris and freshly fallen litter, was not used in this study. Each core section was placed in aluminium foil and packed in ice for transport. In the laboratory, the collected samples were carefully sieved and homogenized to remove roots and other plant and animal debris prior to oven-drying to constant weight at 105 °C for bulk density determination considering the volume of the PVC core. SOC of the collected samples (n = 10) from each plot was analyzed by standard method (Walkley and Black 1934), and the mean value was considered for determination of OCD in (kg/m2) as per the expression:
OCD = % SOC × bulk density (BD) × soil depth
12.1.3 3. Results and Discussion
12.1.3.1 3.1 Soil Organic Carbon (SOC)
The organic carbon in soil differs significantly between stations. The spatial trend of SOC follows the order Stn. 1 (1.41 %) > Stn. 2 (1.28 %) > Stn. 23 (1.27 %) > Stn. 3 (1.23 %) > Stn. 8 (1.06 %) > Stn. 9 (1.04 %) > Stn. 4 (1.02 %) = Stn. 13 (1.02 %) > Stn. 10 (1.01 %) > Stn. 12 (0.99 %) > Stn. 11 (0.98 %) > Stn. 14 (0.96 %) > Stn. 5 (0.88 %) > Stn. 15 (0.83 %) > Stn. 6 (0.80 %) = Stn. 16 (0.80 %) > Stn. 19 (0.75 %) > Stn. 7 (0.74 %) = Stn. 22 (0.74 %) = Stn. 24 (0.74 %) > Stn. 17 (0.73 %) > Stn. 18 (0.72 %) . Stn. 20 (0.68 %) > Stn. 21 (0.66 %) (Annexure 12A.1 and Fig. 12A.2).
Spatial variation of mean soil organic carbon (SOC) in Indian Sundarbans
The significant spatial variation of SOC (p < 0.001) may be attributed to a large extent by mangrove diversity, anthropogenic activity, accretion and erosion processes (Table 12A.3 and Fig. 12A.3).
Map showing spatial variation of mean soil organic carbon (in %) in Indian Sundarbans
The relatively low SOC at Sagar South (Stn. 4) is due to its location at sea front where wave action and tidal amplitude is maximum (~3.5 m mean amplitude). This station experiences the freshwater discharge from the Farakka Barrage (located in the upstream zone), which is about 40,000 cusec/day. This huge quantum of freshwater discharge through the Hooghly channel also causes erosion of the Sagar Island. Continuous erosion of the southern part of this island may be the reason behind minimum retention of organic matter in the intertidal zone (Fig. 12A.4).
Shoreline changes of Sagar Island confirming the process of erosion in the Southern part
The variation of SOC in the Indian Sundarban is thus regulated through an intricate interaction of biological, physical and anthropogenic activities.
The factors governing variation of belowground carbon storage in mangrove soils is difficult to pinpoint (Bouillon et al. 2009; Alongi 2008) as it is not a simple function of measured flux rates, but also integrates thousands of years of variable deposition, transformation and erosion dynamics associated with fluctuating sea levels and episodic disturbances (Chmura et al. 2003). The mean value of SOC shows a decrease with depth. Similar trend is also observed by several researchers. The organic carbon levels under Rhizophora mangle soil were 2.80 %, 2.70 % and 2.70 % in the 0.01–0.05 m, 0.05–0.10 m and 0.10–0.15 m depth respectively (Lacerda et al. 1995). Similar decrease of SOC with depth was also observed under Avicennia soil (Lacerda et al. 1995). Report of decreasing mangrove SOC below 1 m was also documented in several mangrove ecosystems (Donato et al., 2011).
12.1.3.2 3.2 Bulk Density
The bulk density of mangrove soil is attributable to the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay and more specifically to the specific gravity of solid organic and inorganic particles and porosity of the soil. The compactness of mangrove soil increases with depth both in western and eastern Indian Sundarbans due to which the bulk density exhibits higher values with depths in all the stations. Basically the bulk density in the present study area is regulated by sediment texture and deposition/erosion which is the effect of current pattern, tidal amplitude and wind action. The order of bulk density variation is Stn. 24 (1.44 gm/cc) > Stn. 22 (1.38 gm/cc) > Stn. 6 (1.35 gm/cc) = Stn. 11 (1.35 gm/cc) > Stn. 9 (1.34 gm/cc) = Stn. 13 (1.34 gm/cc) = Stn. 23 (1.34 gm/cc) > Stn. 1 (1.33 gm/cc) = Stn. 5 (1.33 gm/cc) = Stn. 20 (1.33 gm/cc) > Stn. 4 (1.32 gm/cc) = Stn. 8 (1.32 gm/cc) = Stn. 10 (1.32 %) > Stn. 2 (1.31 gm/cc) = Stn. 18 (1.31 gm/cc) = Stn. 19 (1.31 gm/cc) = Stn. 21 (1.31 gm/cc) > Stn. 3 (1.30 gm/cc) = Stn. 7 (1.30 gm/cc) = Stn. 12 (1.30 gm/cc) = Stn. 15 (1.30 gm/cc) = Stn. 16 (1.30 gm/cc) = Stn. 17 (1.30 gm/cc) > Stn. 14 (1.29 gm/cc) (Figs. 12A.5 and 12A.6). The significant spatial variations of bulk density (p < 0.001) as shown in Annexure 12A.2 are thus regulated by geophysical processes.
Map showing the bulk density in the intertidal mudflats of the selected stations
Spatial variation of bulk density
12.1.3.3 3.3 Organic Carbon Density (OCD)
OCD being a direct function of SOC and bulk density exhibits almost similar spatial variation to that of SOC. The OCD differs significantly between stations (p < 0.001). The spatial trend of OCD is in the order Stn.1 (1.875 kg/m2) > Stn.23 (1.697 kg/m2) > Stn.2 (1.680 kg/m2) > Stn.3 (1.595 kg/m2) > Stn.8 (1.398 kg/m2) > Stn.9 (1.391 kg/m2) > Stn.13 (1.361 kg/m2) > Stn.4 (1.338 kg/m2) > Stn.10 (1.329 kg/m2) > Stn.11 (1.322 kg/m2) > Stn.12 (1.291 kg/m2) > Stn.14 (1.228 kg/m2) > Stn.5 (1.169 kg/m2) > Stn.15 (1.084 kg/m2) > Stn.6 (1.083 kg/m2) > Stn.24 (1.061 kg/m2) > Stn.16 (1.035 kg/m2) > Stn.22 (1.014 kg/m2) > Stn.19 (0.974 kg/m2) > Stn.7 (0.960 kg/m2) > Stn.17 (0.948 kg/m2) > Stn.18 (0.939 kg/m2) > Stn.20 (0.908 kg/m2) > Stn.21 (0.865 kg/m2) (Annexure 12A.3 and Figs. 12A.7 and 12A.8).
Spatial variation of OCD
Map showing OCD in the study area
We compared our carbon density data (ranging from 0.865 kg/m2 to 1.875 kg/m2) with several global reports published between 2004 and 2011. OCD of 3.03 kg/m2, 0.033 kg/m2, 5.73 kg/m2, 6.61 kg/m2 and 0.38 kg/m2 was observed in rainforests of Ohio, USA (Bernal and Mitsch 2008); wetlands at the southeastern United States (Brevik and Homburg 2004); mangroves in Okinawa, Japan (Khan et al. 2007); wetlands at the southeastern Australia (Howe et al. 2009) and estuarine oceanic soil (Donato et al. 2011) respectively (Fig. 12A.9).
Global figures of OCD compared to our study in February 2012
The present study is significant from the point that the area has not yet witnessed the light of documentation of soil carbon content, although above-ground mangrove biomass (AGMB) and carbon storage have been studied by several workers (Mitra et al. 2010, 2011). A thorough study has been done on the whole-ecosystem C storage in mangroves across a broad tract of the Indo-Pacific region, the geographic core of mangrove area (40 % globally) and diversity and the study sites comprised wide variation in stand composition and stature spanning 30° of latitude (8°S–22° N), 73° of longitude (90°–163°E) and including eastern Micronesia (Kosrae); western Micronesia (Yap and Palau); Sulawesi, Java, Borneo (Indonesia); and the Sundarban (Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta, Bangladesh) (Donato et al. 2011). The study, however, left out the lower Gangetic region sustaining the Indian Sundarban. The present approach is thus an attempt to fill this gap area and establish a baseline data of SOC and OCD in the mangrove-dominated Indian part of Sundarban delta.
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Mitra, A., Zaman, S. (2016). Instruments and Methods. In: Basics of Marine and Estuarine Ecology. Springer, New Delhi. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-2707-6_12
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