Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Emergencies of the Orbit and Adnexa pp 113–137Cite as

Traumatic Optic Neuropathy

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

A variety of different types of direct and indirect and primary and secondary injuries can affect different portions of the optic nerve(s), producing the condition known as traumatic optic neuropathy (TON). Thus, in the setting of penetrating as well as non-penetrating head or facial trauma, a high index of suspicion should be maintained for the possibility that TON is present.

TON is a clinical diagnosis, with each pattern of injury carrying its own unique prognosis and theoretical best treatment; however, the optimum management of patients with TON remains unclear. Observation without intervention, systemic corticosteroids, surgical measures, or a combination of these are current cornerstones of management, but statistically significant evidence supporting any particular approach for TON is absent from the literature. Hopefully, novel management strategies will emerge as more is understood about the converging pathways of various secondary and tertiary mechanisms of cell injury and death at play in TON.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   199.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   199.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Newman NJ. The Cambridge symposium: September 2003. Eye (Lond). 2004;18(11):1025.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Steinsapir KD, Goldberg RA. Traumatic optic neuropathy. Surv Ophthalmol. 1994;38(6):487–518.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Levin L. Traumatic optic neuropathy. CME syllabus, adapted from Levin LA Traumatic optic neuropathy. In: Roy FH, Fraunfelder F, editors. Roy and Fraunfelder’s current ocular therapy. 6th ed. Philadephia: Saunders; 2007. Available at: http://content.lib.utah.edu/utils/getfile/collection/ehsl-nam/id/83/filename/4.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Minckler DS, McLean IW, Tso MO. Distribution of axonal and glial elements in the rhesus optic nerve head studied by electron microscopy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1976;82(2):179–87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Cioffi GA, Van Buskirk EM. Microvasculature of the anterior optic nerve. Surv Ophthalmol. 1994;38:S107–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Hayreh SS. Blood supply of the optic nerve head. Ophthalmologica. 1996;210(5):285–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Joos KM, Kay MD, Pillunat LE, et al. Effect of acute intraocular pressure changes on short posterior ciliary artery haemodynamics. Br J Ophthalmol. 1999;83(1):33–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Tso MO, Shih CY, McLean IW. Is there a blood-brain barrier at the optic nerve head? Arch Ophthalmol. 1975;93(9):815–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Hofman P, Hoyng P, VanderWerf F, Vrensen GF, Schlingemann RO. Lack of blood-brain barrier properties in microvessels of the prelaminar optic nerve head. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2001;42(5):895–901.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Steinsapir KD, Goldberg RA. Traumatic optic neuropathies. In: Miller NR, Newman NJ, editors. Walsh & Hoyt’s clinical neuro-ophthalmology, vol. 1. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005. p. 431–46.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Liu GT, Volpe NJ, Galetta SL. Neuro-ophthalmology. 2nd ed. New York: Saunders; 2010. p. 105–6.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Hayreh SS. Posterior ciliary artery circulation in health and disease: the Weisenfeld lecture. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2004;45(3):748–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Slavin KV, Dujovny M, Soeira G, Ausman J. Optic canal: microanatomic study. Skull Base Surg. 1994;4(3):136–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Maniscalco JE, Habal MB. Microanatomy of the optic canal. J Neurosurg. 1978;48(3):402–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Renn WH, Rhoton Jr AL. Microsurgical anatomy of the sellar region. J Neurosurg. 1975;43(3):288–98.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Van Overbeeke JJ, Sekhar LN. Microanatomy of the blood supply to the optic nerve. Orbit. 2003;22(2):81–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Rizzo JF III. Embryology, anatomy, and physiology of the afferent visual pathway. In: Miller NR, Newman NJ, editors. Walsh and Hoyt’s clinical neuro-ophthalmology, vol. 1. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005. p. 24–35.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Levkovitch-Verbin H, Quigley HA, Martin KRG, et al. A model to study differences between primary and secondary degeneration of retinal ganglion cells in rats by partial optic nerve transection. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2003;44(8):3388–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Feist RM, Kline LB, Morris RE, Witherspoon CD, Michelson MA. Recovery of vision after presumed direct optic nerve injury. Ophthalmology. 1987;94(12):1567–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Wang BH, Robertson BC, Girotto JA, et al. Traumatic optic neuropathy: a review of 61 patients. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2001;107(7):1655.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Kline LB, Morawetz RB, Swaid SN. Indirect injury of the optic nerve. Neurosurgery. 1984;14(6):756–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Turner J. Indirect injuries of the optic nerve. Brain. 1943;66:140–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Walsh FB. Pathological-clinical correlations. I. Indirect trauma to the optic nerves and chiasm. II. Certain cerebral involvements associated with defective blood supply. Invest Ophthalmol. 1966;5(5):433–49.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Lessell S. Indirect optic nerve trauma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1989;107(3):382.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Gross CE, DeKock JR, Panje WR, Hershkowitz N, Newman J. Evidence for orbital deformation that may contribute to monocular blindness following minor frontal head trauma. J Neurosurg. 1981;55(6):963–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Purvin V. Evidence of orbital deformation in indirect optic nerve injury. Weight lifter’s optic neuropathy. J Neuroophthalmol. 1988;8(1):9–11.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Foster BSB, March GAG, Lucarelli MJM, Samiy NN, Lessell SS. Optic nerve avulsion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115(5):623–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Tsopelas NV, Arvanitis PG. Avulsion of the optic nerve head after orbital trauma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998;116(3):394–4.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Cirovic S, Bhola RM, Hose DR, et al. Computer modelling study of the mechanism of optic nerve injury in blunt trauma. Br J Ophthalmol. 2006;90(6):778–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Manson PN, Stanwix MG, Yaremchuk MJ, et al. Frontobasal fractures: anatomical classification and clinical significance. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009;124(6):2096–106.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Spetzler RF, Spetzler H. Holographic interferometry applied to the study of the human skull. J Neurosurg. 1980;52(6):825–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Al-Sukhun J, Kontio R, Lindqvist C. Orbital stress analysis—part I: simulation of orbital deformation following blunt injury by finite element analysis method. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2006;64(3):434–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Fard AKA, Merbs SLS, Pieramici DJD. Optic nerve avulsion from a diving injury. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;124(4):562–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Bellezza AJ, Hart RT, Burgoyne CF. The optic nerve head as a biomechanical structure: initial finite element modeling. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41(10):2991–3000.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Cirovic S, Bhola RM, Hose DR, et al. A computational study of the passive mechanisms of eye restraint during head impact trauma. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Eng. 2005;8(1):1–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Weichel ED, Colyer MH, Ludlow SE, Bower KS, Eiseman AS. Combat ocular trauma visual outcomes during operations Iraqi and enduring freedom. Ophthalmology. 2008;115(12):2235–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Steinsapir KD, Goldberg RA. Traumatic optic neuropathy: a critical update. Compr Ophthalmol Update. 2005;6(1):11–21. Available at: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/501762.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Levin L, Beck RW, Joseph MP, Seiff S, Kraker R. The treatment of traumatic optic neuropathy. Ophthalmology. 1999;106(7):1268–77.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Chadwick J. The medical works of hippocrates: a new translation from the original Greek. Oxford: Blackwell; 1950. p. 264.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Arnold A. Symposium on the treatment of traumatic optic neuropathy resolved: corticosteroids should not be used. The 2nd World Congress on Controversies in Ophthalmology (COPHy), Barcelona. 3–6 March 2011. Available at: http://www.comtecmed.com/cophy/2011/Uploads/assets/arnold.pdf.

  41. Maurer J, Hinni M, Mann W, Pfeiffer N. Optic nerve decompression in trauma and tumor patients. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 1999;256(7):341–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Unterberg AW, Stover J, Kress B, Kiening KL. Edema and brain trauma. Neuroscience. 2004;129(4):1021–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Marmarou A. A review of progress in understanding the pathophysiology and treatment of brain edema. Neurosurg Focus. 2007;22(5):E1:1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Steinsapir KD, Goldberg RA. Traumatic optic neuropathy: an evolving understanding. Am J Ophthalmol. 2011;151(6):928–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Hughes BB. Indirect injury of the optic nerves and chiasma. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp. 1962;111:98–126.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Hedges 3rd TR, Gragoudas ES. Traumatic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. Ann Ophthalmol. 1981;13(5):625–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Petrarca R, Saldana M. Choroidal rupture and optic nerve injury with equipment designated as ‘child-safe’. BMJ Case Rep. 2012. doi:10.1136/bcr-2012-006476.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Sponsel WE, Gray W, Groth SL, Stern AR, Walker JD. Paintball trauma and mechanisms of optic nerve injury: rotational avulsion and rebound evulsion. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2011;52(13):9624–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Hillman JS, Myska V, Nissim S. Complete avulsion of the optic nerve. A clinical, angiographic, and electrodiagnostic study. Br J Ophthalmol. 1975;59(9):503–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Krauss HR, Yee RD, Foos RY. Autoenucleation. Surv Ophthalmol. 1984;29(3):179–87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Leibovitch I, Pietris G, Casson R, Selva D. Oedipism: bilateral self-enucleation. Am J Emerg Med. 2006;24(1):127–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Mauriello JA, DeLuca J, Krieger A, Schulder M, Frohman L. Management of traumatic optic neuropathy – a study of 23 patients. Br J Ophthalmol. 1992;76(6):349–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Park JH, Frenkel M, Dobbie JG, Choromokos E. Evulsion of the optic nerve. Am J Ophthalmol. 1971;72(5):969–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Crowe NW, Nickles TP, Troost BT, Elster AD. Intrachiasmal hemorrhage: a cause of delayed post-traumatic blindness. Neurology. 1989;39(6):863–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. McCann JD, Seiff S. Traumatic neuropathies of the optic nerve, optic chiasm, and ocular motor nerves. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 1994;5(6):9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Ott I, Schwager K, Hagen R, Baier G. Traumatic optic neuropathy: a review of the literature in the light of personal experiences. Laryngorhinootologie. 2010;89(11):647–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Lee V, Ford RL, Xing W, Bunce C, Foot B. Surveillance of traumatic optic neuropathy in the UK. Eye (Lond). 2010;24(2):240–50.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Edmund J, Godtfredsen E. Unilateral optic atrophy following head injury. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1963;41(6):693–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Nau HE, Gerhard L, Foerster M, et al. Optic nerve trauma: clinical, electrophysiological and histological remarks. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1987;89(1–2):16–27.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Al-Qurainy IA, Dutton GN, Ilankobvan V, et al. Midfacial fractures and the eye: the development of a system for detecting patients at risk of eye injury-a prospective evaluation. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1991;29(6):368–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Borruat F-X, Kawasaki A. Optic nerve massaging: an extremely rare cause of self-inflicted blindness. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;139(4):715–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Rajiniganth MG, Gupta AK, Gupta A, Bapuraj JR. Traumatic optic neuropathy: visual outcome following combined therapy protocol. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2003;129(11):1203–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Goldenberg-Cohen N, Miller NR, Repka MX. Traumatic optic neuropathy in children and adolescents. J AAPOS. 2004;8(1):20–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Ford RL, Lee V, Xing W, Bunce C. A 2-year prospective surveillance of pediatric traumatic optic neuropathy in the United Kingdom. J AAPOS. 2012;16(5):413–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Carta A, Ferrigno L, Leaci R, et al. Long-term outcome after conservative treatment of indirect traumatic optic neuropathy. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2006;16(6):847–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Stanley JA, Baise GR. The swinging flashlight test to detect minimal optic neuropathy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1968;80(6):769–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Bell RA. Clinical grading of relative afferent pupillary defects. Arch Ophthalmol. 1993;111(7):938–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Tabatabaei SA, Soleimani M, Alizadeh M, et al. Predictive value of visual evoked potentials, relative afferent pupillary defect, and orbital fractures in patients with traumatic optic neuropathy. Clin Ophthalmol. 2011;5:1021–6.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Alford MA, Nerad JA, Carter KD. Predictive value of the initial quantified relative afferent pupillary defect in 19 consecutive patients with traumatic optic neuropathy. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2001;17(5):323–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Bruce BB, Lamirel C, Wright DW, et al. Nonmydriatic ocular fundus photography in the emergency department. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(4):387–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  71. Manfredi SJ, Raji MR, Sprinkle PM, et al. Computerized tomographic scan findings in facial fractures associated with blindness. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1981;68(4):479–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Seiff SR, Berger MS, Guyon J, Pitts LH. Computed tomographic evaluation of the optic canal in sudden traumatic blindness. Am J Ophthalmol. 1984;98(6):751–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Takehara S, Tanaka T, Uemura K, et al. Optic nerve injury demonstrated by MRI with STIR sequences. Neuroradiology. 1994;36(7):512–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Jordan DR, White GL, Anderson RL, Thiese SM. Orbital emphysema: a potentially blinding complication following orbital fractures. Ann Emerg Med. 1988;17(8):853–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Wood BJ, Mirvis SE, Shanmuganathan K. Tension pneumocephalus and tension orbital emphysema following blunt trauma. Ann Emerg Med. 1996;28(4):446–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Yu-Wai-Man P, Griffiths PG. Steroids for traumatic optic neuropathy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(6):CD006032.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Yu-Wai-Man P, Griffiths PG. Surgery for traumatic optic neuropathy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(6):CD005024.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Berestka JS, Rizzo JFI. Controversy in the management of traumatic optic neuropathy. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1994;34(3):87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Volpe NJ, Levin L. How should patients with indirect traumatic optic neuropathy be treated? J Neuroophthalmol. 2011;31(2):169–74. Volpe NJ, Levin L, eds.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Yip CC, Chng NW, Eong KG, et al. Low-dose intravenous methylprednisolone or conservative treatment in the management of traumatic optic neuropathy. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2002;12(4):309–14.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Hooper RS. Orbital complications of head injury. Br J Surg. 1951;39(154):126–38.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Wolin MJ, Lavin PJ. Spontaneous visual recovery from traumatic optic neuropathy after blunt head injury. Am J Ophthalmol. 1990;109(4):430–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Entezari M, Rajavi Z, Sedighi N, Daftarian N, Sanagoo M. High-dose intravenous methylprednisolone in recent traumatic optic neuropathy; a randomized double-masked placebo-controlled clinical trial. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2007;245(9):1267–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Anderson RL, Panje WR, Gross CE. Optic nerve blindness following blunt forehead trauma. Ophthalmology. 1982;89(5):445–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Seiff SR. High dose corticosteroids for treatment of vision loss due to indirect injury to the optic nerve. Ophthalmic Surg. 1990;21(6):389–95.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Collins WF, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of methylprednisolone or naloxone in the treatment of acute spinal-cord injury. N Engl J Med. 1990;323(17):1207–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Hurlbert RJ, Hadley MN, Walters BC, et al. Pharmacological therapy for acute spinal cord injury. Neurosurgery. 2013;72:93–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Bracken MB, Collins WF, Freeman DF, et al. Efficacy of methylprednisolone in acute spinal cord injury. JAMA. 1984;251(1):45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Holford TR, et al. Administration of methylprednisolone for 24 or 48 hours or tirilazad mesylate for 48 hours in the treatment of acute spinal cord injury. Results of the third national acute spinal cord injury randomized controlled trial. National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study. JAMA. 1997;277(20):1597–604.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Pointillart V, Petitjean ME, Wiart L, et al. Pharmacological therapy of spinal cord injury during the acute phase. Spinal Cord. 2000;38(2):71–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Coleman WP, Benzel E, Cahill DW, et al. A critical appraisal of the reporting of the National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Studies (II and III) of methylprednisolone in acute spinal cord injury. J Spinal Disord. 2000;13(3):185.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Hurlbert RJ. Methylprednisolone for acute spinal cord injury: an inappropriate standard of care. J Neurosurg. 2000;93(1 Suppl):1–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Roberts I, Yates D, Sandercock P, et al. Effect of intravenous corticosteroids on death within 14 days in 10008 adults with clinically significant head injury (MRC CRASH trial): randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2004;364(9442):1321–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Edwards P, Arango M, Balica L, et al. Final results of MRC CRASH, a randomised placebo-controlled trial of intravenous corticosteroid in adults with head injury-outcomes at 6 months. Lancet. 2005;365(9475):1957–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Liu D. A simplified technique of orbital decompression for severe retrobulbar hemorrhage. Am J Ophthalmol. 1993;116(1):34–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Wohlrab T-M, Maas S, De Carpentier JP. Surgical decompression in traumatic optic neuropathy. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2002;80(3):287–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Fukado Y. Results in 400 cases of surgical decompression of the optic nerve. Mod Probl Ophthalmol. 1975;14:474–81.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Niho S, Niho M, Niho K. Decompression of the optic canal by the transethmoidal route and decompression of the superior orbital fissure. Can J Ophthalmol. 1970;5(1):22–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Matsuzaki H, Kunita M, Kawai K. Optic nerve damage in head trauma: clinical and experimental studies. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 1982;26(4):447–61.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Joseph MP. Extracranial optic nerve decompression for traumatic optic neuropathy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1990;108(8):1091.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Onofrey CB, Tse DT, Johnson TE, et al. Optic canal decompression: a cadaveric study of the effects of surgery. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2007;23(4):261–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Goldberg RA, Steinsapir KD. Extracranial optic canal decompression: indications and technique. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1996;12(3):163.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Horiguchi K, Murai H, Hasegawa Y, et al. Endoscopic endonasal trans-sphenoidal optic nerve decompression for traumatic optic neuropathy – technical note. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 2010;50(6):518–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  104. Sofferman RA. Transnasal approach to optic nerve decompression. Oper Tech Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1991;2(3):150–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  105. Levin LA, Joseph MP, Rizzo JF, Lessell S. Optic canal decompression in indirect optic nerve trauma. Ophthalmology. 1994;101(3):566–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Sofferman RA. An extracranial microsurgical approach to the optic nerve. J Microsurg. 1979;1(3):195–202.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Sofferman RA. Sphenoethmoid approach to the optic nerve. Laryngoscope. 1981;91(2):184–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Mahapatra AK, Bhatia R. Predictive value of visual evoked potentials in unilateral optic nerve injury. Surg Neurol. 1989;31(5):339–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Mahapatra AK. Visual evoked potentials in optic nerve injury. Does it merit a mention? Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1991;112(1–2):47–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Agarwal A, Mahapatra AK. Visual outcome in optic nerve injury patients without initial light perception. Indian J Ophthalmol. 1999;47(4):233–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Holmes MD, Sires BS. Flash visual evoked potentials predict visual outcome in traumatic optic neuropathy. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2004;20(5):342–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Miller NR. Optic nerve protection, regeneration, and repair in the 21st century: LVIII Edward Jackson Memorial lecture. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;132(6):811–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neuro-Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Jason N. Harris MD

  2. Department of Ophthalmology, Neurology and Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Wilmer Eye Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Neil R. Miller MD

Authors
  1. Jason N. Harris MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Neil R. Miller MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Neil R. Miller MD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Medical Research Foundation, Sankara Nethralaya, Chennai, India

    Bipasha Mukherjee

  2. Hong Kong Eye Hospital, Hong Kong, China

    Hunter Yuen

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer India

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Harris, J.N., Miller, N.R. (2017). Traumatic Optic Neuropathy. In: Mukherjee, B., Yuen, H. (eds) Emergencies of the Orbit and Adnexa. Springer, New Delhi. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-1807-4_17

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-1807-4_17

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New Delhi

  • Print ISBN: 978-81-322-1806-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-81-322-1807-4

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation