Skip to main content

Part of the book series: Springer Theses ((Springer Theses))

  • 484 Accesses

Abstract

In this chapter, I provide extended background information on the Moon–plasma interaction. It begins with a brief outline of plasma interactions with solar system bodies. Key parameters controlling the nature of interactions are the body’s atmospheric density and the strength of its intrinsic magnetic field. I then introduce particle emission processes from solid surfaces of airless bodies in space environment. Particle emission and surface charging are fundamental consequences of direct interactions of airless bodies with the surrounding plasma. Next I present a review of observational and theoretical studies of lunar plasma environment. Our current understanding of the Moon–plasma interaction is mostly based on a number of plasma and electromagnetic field measurements which have been conducted since the Apollo era. I also describe the basic characteristics of the lunar tenuous exosphere. Finally I mention the objectives of this thesis.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Allegrini, F., Dayeh, M., Desai, M., Funsten, H., Fuselier, S., Janzen, P., McComas, D., Moübius, E., Reisenfeld, D., M., D.R., Schwadron, N., Wurz, P.: Lunar energetic neutral atom (ENA) spectra measured by the interstellar boundary explorer (IBEX). Planet. Space Sci. 85(0), 232–242 (2013). doi:10.1016/j.pss.2013.06.014. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032063313001554

  2. Anderson, B.J., Acuña, M.H., Korth, H., Purucker, M.E., Johnson, C.L., Slavin, J.A., Solomon, S.C., McNutt, R.L.: The structure of mercury’s magnetic field from MESSENGER’s first flyby. Science 321(5885), 82–85 (2008). doi:10.1126/science.1159081. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/321/5885/82.abstract

  3. Anderson, B.J., Johnson, C.L., Korth, H., Purucker, M.E., Winslow, R.M., Slavin, J.A., Solomon, S.C., McNutt Jr, R.L., Raines, J.M., Zurbuchen, T.H.: The global magnetic field of mercury from MESSENGER orbital observations. Science 333(6051), 1859–1862 (2011). doi:10.1126/science.1211001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Anderson, K.A.: Method to determine sense and magnitude of electric field from lunar particle shadows. J. Geophys. Res. 75, 2591–2594 (1970). doi:10.1029/JA075i013p02591

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Ando, H., Imamura, T., Nabatov, A., Futaana, Y., Iwata, T., Hanada, H., Matsumoto, K., Mochizuki, N., Kono, Y., Noda, H., Liu, Q., Oyama, K.I., Yamamoto, Z., Saito, A.: Dual-spacecraft radio occultation measurement of the electron density near the lunar surface by the SELENE mission. J. Geophys. Res. 117, A08313 (2012). doi:10.1029/2011JA017141

  6. Backes, H., Neubauer, F., Dougherty, M., Achilleos, N., Andre, N., Arridge, C., Bertucci, C., Jones, G., Khurana, K., Russell, C., Wennmacher, A.: Titan’s magnetic field signature during the first Cassini encounter. Science 308(5724), 992–995 (2005). doi:10.1126/science.1109763

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Bale, S., Owen, C., Bougeret, J., Goetz, K., Kellogg, P., Lepping, R., Manning, R., Monson, S.: Evidence of currents and unstable particle distributions in an extended region around the lunar plasma wake. Geophys. Res. Lett. 24(11), 1427–1430 (1997). doi:10.1029/97GL01193

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Bamford, R.A., Kellett, B., Bradford, W.J., Norberg, C., Thornton, A., Gibson, K.J., Crawford, I.A., Silva, L., Gargaté, L., Bingham, R.: Minimagnetospheres above the lunar surface and the formation of lunar swirls. Phys. Rev. Lett. 109(081), 101 (2012). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.109.081101. http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.109.081101

  9. Barabash, S.: Classes of the solar wind interactions in the solar system. Earth Planets Space 64, 57–59 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Benson, J., Freeman, J.W., Hills, H.K.: The lunar terminator ionosphere. In: Proceedings of Lunar Science Conference, 6th, pp. 3013–3021 (1975)

    Google Scholar 

  11. Berg, O.E.: A Lunar Terminator Configuration. Earth Planet. Sci. 39, 377–381 (1978)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Birch, P.C., Chapman, S.C.: Particle-in-cell simulations of the lunar wake with high phase space resolution. Geophys. Res. Lett. 28(2), 219–222 (2001). doi:10.1029/2000GL011958. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2000GL011958

  13. Blewett, D.T., Coman, E.I., Hawke, B.R., Gillis-Davis, J.J., Purucker, M.E., Hughes, C.G.: Lunar swirls: Examining crustal magnetic anomalies and space weathering trends. J. Geophys. Res. 116, E02002 (2011). doi:10.1029/2010JE003656

  14. Borisov, N., Mall, U.: Plasma distribution and electric fields behind the Moon. Phys. Lett. A 265(5–6), 369–376 (2000). doi:10.1016/S0375-9601(99)00852-X. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037596019900852X

  15. Borisov, N., Mall, U.: The structure of the double layer behind the Moon. J. Plasma Phys. 67, 277–299 (2002). doi:10.1017/S0022377802001654

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Cahill, L., Patel, V.: The boundary of the geomagnetic field, august to november, 1961. Planet. Space Sci. 15(6), 997–1033 (1967). doi:10.1016/0032-0633(67)90168-7. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0032063367901687

  17. Chapman, S., Ferraro, V.: A new theory of magnetic storms. Nature 126, 129–130 (1930). doi:10.1038/126129a0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Chi, P., Russell, C., Wei, H., Farrell, W.: Observations of narrowband ion cyclotron waves on the surface of the moon in the terrestrial magnetotail. Planet. Space Sci. (2013). doi:10.1016/j.pss.2013.08.020. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S00320633130%02250

  19. Cladis, J.B., Francis, W.E., Vondrak, R.R.: Transport toward earth of ions sputtered from the moon’s surface by the solar wind. J. Geophys. Res. 99(A1), 53–64 (1994). doi:10.1029/93JA02672. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/93JA02672

  20. Clay, D.R., Goldstein, B.E., Neugebauer, M., Snyder, C.W.: Lunar surface solar wind observations at the Apollo 12 and Apollo 15 site. J. Geophys. Res. 80, 1751–1760 (1975). doi:10.1029/JA080i013p01751

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Coates, A.J., Jones, G.H.: Plasma environment of Jupiter family comets. Planet. Space Sci. 57(10, Sp. Iss. SI), 1175–1191 (2009). doi:10.1016/j.pss.2009.04.009

  22. Colburn, D.S., Currie, R.G., Mihalov, J.D., Sonett, C.P.: Diamagnetic solar-wind cavity discovered behind Moon. Science 158, 1040–1042 (1967). doi:10.1126/science.158.3804.1040

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Colburn, D.S., Mihalov, J.D., Sonett, C.P.: Magnetic observations of the lunar cavity. J. Geophys. Res. 76, 2940–2957 (1971). doi:10.1029/JA076i013p02940

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Collier, M.R., Hills, H.K., Stubbs, T.J., Halekas, J.S., Delory, G.T., Espley, J., Farrell, W.M., Freeman, J.W., Vondrak, R.: Lunar surface electric potential changes associated with traversals through the earth’s foreshock. Planet. Space Sci. 59(14), 1727–1743 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.pss.2010.12.010. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S00320633100%03703

  25. DeForest, S.E.: Spacecraft charging at synchronous orbit. J. Geophys. Res. 77(4), 651–659 (1972). doi:10.1029/JA077i004p00651. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/JA077i004p00651

  26. Dhanya, M.B., Bhardwaj, A., Futaana, Y., Fatemi, S., Holmström, M., Barabash, S., Wieser, M., Wurz, P., Alok, A., Thampi, R.S.: Proton entry into the near-lunar plasma wake for magnetic field aligned flow. Geophys. Res. Lett. 40(12), 2913–2917 (2013). doi:10.1002/grl.50617. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/grl.50617

  27. Dubinin, E., Fränz, M., Woch, J., Roussos, E., Barabash, S., Lundin, R., Winningham, J.D., Frahm, R.A., Acuña, M.: Plasma morphology at mars. Aspera-3 observations. Space Sci. Rev. 126(1–4), 209–238 (2006). doi:10.1007/s11214-006-9039-4, Workshop on on Solar Wind Interaction and Atmosphere Evolution of Mars, Kiruna, SWEDEN, 27 Feb–01 Mar 2006

  28. Dyal, P., Parkin, C.W., Daily, W.D.: Magnetism and the interior of the Moon. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 12, 568–591 (1974). doi:10.1029/RG012i004p00568

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Dyal, P., Parkin, C.W., Snyder, C.W., Clay, D.R.: Measurements of lunar magnetic field interaction with the solar wind. Nature 236(5347), 381–385 (1972). doi:10.1038/236381a0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Elphic, R.C., Funsten, H.O., Barraclough, B.L., McComas, D.J., Paffett, M.T., Vaniman, D.T., Heiken, G.: Lunar surface composition and solar wind-induced secondary ion mass spectrometry. Geophys. Res. Lett. 18(11), 2165–2168 (1991). doi:10.1029/91GL02669. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/91GL02669

  31. Farrell, W., Fitzenreiter, R., Owen, C., Byrnes, J., Lepping, R., Ogilvie, K., Neubauer, F.: Upstream ULF waves and energetic electrons associated with the lunar wake: detection of precursor activity. Geophys. Res. Lett. 23(10), 1271–1274 (1996). doi:10.1029/96GL01355

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Farrell, W., Kaiser, M., Steinberg, J., Bale, S.: A simple simulation of a plasma void: Applications to wind observations of the lunar wake. J. Geophys. Res. 103(A10), 23653–23660 (1998). doi:10.1029/97JA03717

  33. Farrell, W.M., Stubbs, T.J., Delory, G.T., Vondrak, R.R., Collier, M.R., Halekas, J.S., Lin, R.P.: Concerning the dissipation of electrically charged objects in the shadowed lunar polar regions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 35, L19104 (2008). doi:10.1029/2008GL034785

  34. Farrell, W.M., Stubbs, T.J., Halekas, J.S., Delory, G.T., Collier, M.R., Vondrak, R.R., Lin, R.P.: Loss of solar wind plasma neutrality and affect on surface potentials near the lunar terminator and shadowed polar regions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 35(5), L05105 (2008). doi:10.1029/2007GL032653

  35. Farrell, W.M., Stubbs, T.J., Halekas, J.S., Killen, R.M., Delory, G.T., Collier, M.R., Vondrak, R.R.: Anticipated electrical environment within permanently shadowed lunar craters. J. Geophys. Res. 115, E03004 (2010). doi:10.1029/2009JE003464

  36. Farrell, W.M., Stubbs, T.J., Vondrak, R.R., Delory, G.T., Halekas, J.S.: Complex Electric Fields Near the Lunar Terminator: The Near-Surface Wake and Accelerated Dust. Geophys. Res. Lett. 34, L14201 (2007). doi:10.1029/2007GL029312

  37. Fatemi, S., Holmström, M., Futaana, Y.: The effects of lunar surface plasma absorption and solar wind temperature anisotropies on the solar wind proton velocity space distributions in the low-altitude lunar plasma wake. J. Geophys. Res. 117, A10105 (2012). doi:10.1029/2011JA017353

  38. Fatemi, S., Holmström, M., Futaana, Y., Barabash, S., Lue, C.: The lunar wake current systems. Geophys. Res. Lett. 40, 17–21 (2013). doi:10.1029/2012GL054635. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012GL054635

  39. Fenner, M.A., Freeman Jr., J.W., Hills, H.K.: The electric potential of the lunar surface. In: Proceedings of lunar science conference, 4th, p. 2877 (1973)

    Google Scholar 

  40. Feuerbacher, B., Anderegg, M., Fitton, B., Laude, L.D., Willis, R.F., Grard, R.J.L.: Photoemission from lunar surface fines and the lunar photoelectron sheath. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 3, 2655–2663 (1972)

    Google Scholar 

  41. Feuerbacher, B., Fitton, B.: Experimental investigation of photoemission from satellite surface materials. J. Appl. Phys. 43(4), 1563–1572 (1972). doi:10.1063/1.1661362. http://link.aip.org/link/?JAP/43/1563/1

  42. Freeman, J., Fenner, M., Hills, H.: Electric potential of the moon in the solar wind. J. Geophys. Res. 78(22), 4560–4567 (1973). doi:10.1029/JA078i022p04560

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Freeman Jr, J.W.: Energetic ion bursts on the nightside of the Moon. J. Geophys. Res. 77(1), 239–243 (1972). doi:10.1029/JA077i001p00239

  44. Fu, J.H.M.: Surface potential of a photoemitting plate. J. Geophys. Res. 76(10), 2506–2509 (1971). doi:10.1029/JA076i010p02506

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Fuller, M.: Lunar magnetism. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 12(1), 23–70 (1974). doi:10.1029/RG012i001p00023

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Funsten, H.O., Allegrini, F., Bochsler, P.A., Fuselier, S.A., Gruntman, M., Henderson, K., Janzen, P.H., Johnson, R.E., Larsen, B.A., Lawrence, D.J., McComas, D.J., Möbius, E., Reisenfeld, D.B., Rodríguez, D., Schwadron, N.A., Wurz, P.: Reflection of solar wind hydrogen from the lunar surface. J. Geophys. Res. 118(2), 292–305 (2013). doi:10.1002/jgre.20055. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jgre.20055

  47. Futaana, Y., Barabash, S., Holmström, M., Bhardwaj, A.: Low energy neutral atoms imaging of the Moon. Planet. Space Sci. 54(2), 132–143 (2006). doi:10.1016/j.pss.2005.10.010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Futaana, Y., Barabash, S., Wieser, M., Holmström, M., Bhardwaj, A., Dhanya, M.B., Sridharan, R., Wurz, P., Schaufelberger, A., Asamura, K.: Protons in the near-lunar wake observed by the Sub-keV Atom Reflection Analyzer on board Chandrayaan-1. J. Geophys. Res. 115, A10248 (2010). doi:10.1029/2010JA015264

  49. Futaana, Y., Barabash, S., Wieser, M., Holmström, M., Lue, C., Wurz, P., Schaufelberger, A., Bhardwaj, A., Dhanya, M.B., Asamura, K.: Empirical energy spectra of neutralized solar wind protons from the lunar regolith. J. Geophys. Res. 117, E05005 (2012). doi:10.1029/2011JE004019

  50. Futaana, Y., Barabash, S., Wieser, M., Lue, C., Wurz, P., Vorburger, A., Bhardwaj, A., Asamura, K.: Remote energetic neutral atom imaging of electric potential over a lunar magnetic anomaly. Geophys. Res. Lett. 40, 262–266 (2013). doi:10.1002/grl.50135. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/grl.50135

  51. Futaana, Y., Machida, S., Saito, Y., Matsuoka, A., Hayakawa, H.: Counterstreaming electrons in the near vicinity of the Moon observed by plasma instruments on board NOZOMI. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 18729–18740 (2001). doi:10.1029/2000JA000146

  52. Garrick-Bethell, I., Head III, J.W., Pieters, C.M.: Spectral properties, magnetic fields, and dust transport at lunar swirls. Icarus 212(2), 480–492 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2010.11.036

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Goertz, C.K.: Dusty plasmas in the solar system. Rev. Geophys. 27(2), 271–292 (1989). doi:10.1029/RG027i002p00271

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Gorenstein, P., Bjorkholm, P.: Detection of radon emanation from the crater aristarchus by the apollo 15 alpha particle spectrometer. Science 179(4075), 792–794 (1973). doi:10.1126/science.179.4075.792. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/179/4075/792.abstract

  55. Gorenstein, P., Golub, L., Bjorkholm, P.: Radon emanation from the moon, spatial and temporal variability. The Moon 9(1–2), 129–140 (1974). doi:10.1007/BF00565399. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00565399

  56. Grard, R.J.L.: Properties of the satellite photoelectron sheath derived from photoemission laboratory measurements. J. Geophys. Res. 78(16), 2885–2906 (1973). doi:10.1029/JA078i016p02885. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/JA078i016p02885

  57. Guernsey, R.L., Fu, J.H.M.: Potential distribution surrounding a photo-emitting, plate in a dilute plasma. J. Geophys. Res. 75(16), 3193–3199 (1970). doi:10.1029/JA075i016p03193

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Halekas, J.S., Bale, S.D., Mitchell, D.L., Lin, R.P.: Electrons and magnetic fields in the lunar plasma wake. J. Geophys. Res. 110, A07222 (2005). doi:10.1029/2004JA010991

  59. Halekas, J.S., Brain, D.A., Lin, R.P., Mitchell, D.L.: Solar wind interaction with lunar crustal magnetic anomalies. Adv. Space Res. 41(8), 1319–1324 (2008). doi:10.1016/j.asr.2007.04.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Halekas, J.S., Brain, D.A., Mitchell, D.L., Lin, R.P.: Whistler waves observed near lunar crustal magnetic sources. Geophys. Res. Lett. 33, L22104 (2006). doi:10.1029/2006GL027684

  61. Halekas, J.S., Brain, D.A., Mitchell, D.L., Lin, R.P., Harrison, L.: On the occurrence of magnetic enhancements caused by solar wind interaction with lunar crustal fields. Geophys. Res. Lett. 33(8), L08106 (2006). doi:10.1029/2006GL025931

  62. Halekas, J.S., Delory, G.T., Brain, D.A., Lin, R.P., Fillingim, M.O., Lee, C.O., Mewaldt, R.A., Stubbs, T.J., Farrell, W.M., Hudson, M.K.: Extreme Lunar Surface Charging during Solar Energetic Particle Events. Geophys. Res. Lett. 34, L02111 (2007). doi:10.1029/2006GL028517

  63. Halekas, J.S., Delory, G.T., Farrell, W.M., Angelopoulos, V., McFadden, J.P., Bonnell, J.W., Fillingim, M.O., Plaschke, F.: First Remote Measurements of Lunar Surface Charging from ARTEMIS: Evidence for Nonmonotonic Sheath Potentials Above the Dayside Surface. J. Geophys. Res. 116, A07103 (2011). doi:10.1029/2011JA016542

  64. Halekas, J.S., Delory, G.T., Lin, R.P., Stubbs, T.J., Farrell, W.M.: Lunar Prospector Observations of the Electrostatic Potential of the Lunar Surface and its Response to Incident Currents. J. Geophys. Res. 113, A09102 (2008). doi:10.1029/2008JA013194

  65. Halekas, J.S., Delory, G.T., Lin, R.P., Stubbs, T.J., Farrell, W.M.: Lunar prospector measurements of secondary electron emission from lunar Regolith. Planet. Space Sci. 57, 78–82 (2009). doi:10.1016/j.pss.2008.11.009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Halekas, J.S., Delory, G.T., Lin, R.P., Stubbs, T.J., Farrell, W.M.: Lunar surface charging during solar energetic particle events: Measurement and prediction. J. Geophys. Res. 114, A05110 (2009). doi:10.1029/2009JA014113

  67. Halekas, J.S., Lin, R.P., Mitchell, D.L.: Large negative lunar surface potentials in sunlight and shadow. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32, L09102 (2005). doi:10.1029/2005GL022627

  68. Halekas, J.S., Mitchell, D.L., Lin, R.P., Hood, L.L., Acuña, M.H., Binder, A.B.: Evidence for negative charging of the Lunar surface in shadow. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29, 1435 (2002). doi:10.1029/2001GL014428

    Google Scholar 

  69. Halekas, J.S., Poppe, A.R., Delory, G.T., Sarantos, M., Farrell, W.M., Angelopoulos, V., McFadden, J.P.: Lunar pickup ions observed by artemis: Spatial and temporal distribution and constraints on species and source locations. J. Geophys. Res. 117, E06006 (2012). doi:10.1029/2012JE004107

  70. Halekas, J.S., Poppe, A.R., Delory, G.T., Sarantos, M., McFadden, J.P.: Using artemis pickup ion observations to place constraints on the lunar atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 118, 81–88 (2013). doi:10.1029/2012JE004292. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012JE004292

  71. Halekas, J.S., Poppe, A.R., Farrell, W.M., Delory, G.T., Angelopoulos, V., McFadden, J.P., Bonnell, J.W., Glassmeier, K.H., Plaschke, F., Roux, A., Ergun, R.E.: Lunar precursor effects in the solar wind and terrestrial magnetosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 117, A05101 (2012). doi:10.1029/2011JA017289

  72. Halekas, J.S., Poppe, A.R., McFadden, J.P., Glassmeier, K.H.: The effects of reflected protons on the plasma environment of the moon for parallel interplanetary magnetic fields. Geophys. Res. Lett. 40(17), 4544–4548 (2013). doi:10.1002/grl.50892. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/grl.50892

  73. Halekas, J.S., Saito, Y., Delory, G.T., Farrell, W.M.: New views of the lunar plasma environment. Planet. Space Sci. 59(14, SI), 1681–1694 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.pss.2010.08.011. First Workshop on Lunar Dust, Plasma and Atmosphere—The Next Steps (LDAP), Boulder, CO, 27–29 Jan 2010

  74. Harnett, E., Winglee, R.: Two-dimensional MHD simulation of the solar wind interaction with magnetic field anomalies on the surface of the Moon. J. Geophys. Res. 105(A11), 24997–25007 (2000). doi:10.1029/2000JA000074

  75. Harnett, E., Winglee, R.: 2.5D Particle and MHD simulations of mini-magnetospheres at the Moon. J. Geophys. Res. 107(A12), 1421 (2002). doi:10.1029/2002JA009241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Hashimoto, K., Hashitani, M., Kasahara, Y., Omura, Y., Nishino, M.N., Saito, Y., Yokota, S., Ono, T., Tsunakawa, H., Shibuya, H., Matsushima, M., Shimizu, H., Takahashi, F.: Electrostatic solitary waves associated with magnetic anomalies and wake boundary of the Moon observed by KAGUYA. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37, L19204 (2010). doi:10.1029/2010GL044529

  77. Hemingway, D., Garrick-Bethell, I.: Magnetic field direction and Lunar swirl morphology: insights from Airy and Reiner Gamma. J. Geophys. Res. 117, E10012 (2012). doi:10.1029/2012JE004165

  78. Hilchenbach, M., Hovstadt, D., Klecker, B., Möbius, E.: Observation of energetic lunar pick-up ions near earth. Adv. Space Res. 13(10), 321–324 (1993). doi:10.1016/0273-1177(93)90086-Q

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Hoffman, J., Hodges R.R., J.: Molecular gas species in the lunar atmosphere. The Moon 14(1), 159–167 (1975). doi:10.1007/BF00562981. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00562981

  80. Hoffman, J.H., Hodges Jr., R.R., Johnson, F.S., Evans, D.E.: Lunar atmospheric composition results from Apollo 17. Proceedings of Lunar Science Conference, 4th, pp. 2865 (1973)

    Google Scholar 

  81. Holmström, M., Fatemi, S., Futaana, Y., Nilsson, H.: The interaction between the moon and the solar wind. Earth Planets Space 64, 237–245 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Holmström, M., Wieser, M., Barabash, S., Futaana, Y., Bhardwaj, A.: Dynamics of solar wind protons reflected by the Moon. J. Geophys. Res. 115, A06206 (2010). doi:10.1029/2009JA014843

  83. Hood, L.L., Williams, C.R.: The lunar swirls—distribution and possible origins. Proceedings of Lunar Planetery Science Conference, 19th, pp. 99–113 (1989)

    Google Scholar 

  84. Hood, L.L., Zakharian, A., Halekas, J.S., Mitchell, D.L., Lin, R.P., Acuña, M.H., Binder, A.B.: Initial mapping and interpretation of lunar crustal magnetic anomalies using lunar prospector magnetometer data. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 27825–27839 (2001). doi:10.1029/2000JE001366

  85. Hutchinson, I.H.: Electron velocity distribution instability in magnetized plasma wakes and artificial electron mass. J. Geophys. Res. 117, A03101 (2012). doi:10.1029/2011JA017119

  86. Hutchinson, I.H.: Near-lunar proton velocity distribution explained by electrostatic acceleration. J. Geophys. Res. 118(5), 1825–1827 (2013). doi:10.1002/jgra.50277. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jgra.50277

  87. Imamura, T., Nabatov, A., Mochizuki, N., Iwata, T., Hanada, H., Matsumoto, K., Noda, H., Kono, Y., Liu, Q., Futaana, Y., Ando, H., Yamamoto, Z., Oyama, K.I., Saito, A.: Radio occultation measurement of the electron density near the lunar surface using a subsatellite on the selene mission. J. Geophys. Res. 117, A06303 (2012). doi:10.1029/2011JA017293

  88. Israelevich, P., Ofman, L.: Hybrid simulation of the shock wave trailing the Moon. J. Geophys. Res. 117, A08223 (2012). doi:10.1029/2011JA017358

  89. Johnson, C.L., Purucker, M.E., Korth, H., Anderson, B.J., Winslow, R.M., Asad, M.M.H.A., Slavin, J.A., Alexeev, I.I., Phillips, R.J., Zuber, M.T., Solomon, S.C.: Messenger observations of mercury’s magnetic field structure. J. Geophys. Res. 117, E00L14 (2012). doi:10.1029/2012JE004217

  90. Johnson, F.S., Midgley, J.E.: Notes on the lunar magnetosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 73(5), 1523–000 (1968). doi:10.1029/JA073i005p01523

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. Kallio, E.: Formation of the lunar wake in quasi-neutral hybrid model. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32(6), L06107 (2005). doi:10.1029/2004GL021989. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004GL021989

  92. Kallio, E., Jarvinen, R., Dyadechkin, S., Wurz, P., Barabash, S., Alvarez, F., Fernandes, V.A., Futaana, Y., Harri, A.M., Heilimo, J., Lue, C., Mäkelä, J., Porjo, N., Schmidt, W., Siili, T.: Kinetic simulations of finite gyroradius effects in the lunar plasma environment on global, meso, and microscales. Planet. Space Sci. 74, 146–155 (2012). doi:10.1016/j.pss.2012.09.012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Kallio, E., Sillanpää, I., Janhunen, P.: Titan in subsonic and supersonic flow. Geophys. Res. Lett. 31(15), L15703 (2004). doi:10.1029/2004GL020344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004GL020344

  94. Katz, I., Parks, D.E., Mandell, M.J., Harvey, J.M., Brownell Jr., D.H., Wang, S.S., Rotenberg, M.: A three dimensional dynamic study of electrostatic charging in materials. Technical report (1977)

    Google Scholar 

  95. Khurana, K.K., Russell, C.T., Dougherty, M.K.: Magnetic portraits of Tethys and Rhea. Icarus 193(2), 465–474 (2008). doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.08.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Kimura, S., Nakagawa, T.: Electromagnetic full particle simulation of the electric field structure around the Moon and the Lunar Wake. Earth Planets Space 60, 591–599 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Kivelson, M., Khurana, K., Coroniti, F., Joy, S., Russell, C., Walker, R., Warnecke, J., Bennett, L., Polanskey, C.: The magnetic field and magnetosphere of Ganymede. Geophys. Res. Lett. 24(17), 2155–2158 (1997). doi:10.1029/97GL02201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  98. Kivelson, M., Khurana, K., Russell, C., Walker, R., Warnecke, J., Coroniti, F., Polanskey, C., Southwood, D., Schubert, G.: Discovery of Ganymede’s magnetic field by the Galileo spacecraft. Nature 384(6609), 537–541 (1996). doi:10.1038/384537a0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Kurata, M., Tsunakawa, H., Saito, Y., Shibuya, H., Matsushima, M., Shimizu, H.: Mini-magnetosphere over the Reiner Gamma magnetic anomaly region on the Moon. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32(24), L24205 (2005). doi:10.1029/2005GL024097

  100. Leblanc, F., Doressoundiram, A., Schneider, N., Mangano, V., Ariste, A.L., Lemen, C., Gelly, B., Barbieri, C., Cremonese, G.: High latitude peaks in Mercury’s sodium exosphere: spectral signature using THEMIS solar telescope. Geophys. Res. Lett. 35(18), L18204 (2008). doi:10.1029/2008GL035322

  101. Lin, R.P., Mitchell, D.L., Curtis, D.W., Anderson, K.A., Carlson, C.W., McFadden, J., Acuña, M.H., Hood, L.L., Binder, A.: Lunar surface magnetic fields and their interaction with the solar wind: results from Lunar prospector. Science 281, 1480–1484 (1998). doi:10.1126/science.281.5382.1480

    Article  Google Scholar 

  102. Lindeman, R., Freeman Jr., J.W., Vondrak, R.R.: Ions from the lunar atmosphere. Proceedings of Lunar Science Conference, 4th, pp. 2889 (1973)

    Google Scholar 

  103. Lue, C., Futaana, Y., Barabash, S., Wieser, M., Holmström, M., Bhardwaj, A., Dhanya, M.B., Wurz, P.: Strong influence of lunar crustal fields on the solar wind flow. Geophys. Res. Lett. 38, L03202 (2011). doi:10.1029/2010GL046215

  104. Lyon, E.F., Bridge, H.S., Binsack, J.H.: Explorer 35 plasma measurements in the vicinity of the Moon. J. Geophys. Res. 72, 6113–6117 (1967). doi:10.1029/JZ072i023p06113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  105. Mall, U., Kirsch, E., Cierpka, K., Wilken, B., Söding, A., Neubauer, F., Gloeckler, G., Galvin, A.: Direct observation of lunar pick-up ions near the Moon. Geophys. Res. Lett. 25(20), 3799–3802 (1998). doi:10.1029/1998GL900003

  106. McComas, D.J., Allegrini, F., Bochsler, P., Frisch, P., Funsten, H.O., Gruntman, M., Janzen, P.H., Kucharek, H., Moebius, E., Reisenfeld, D.B., Schwadron, N.A.: Lunar backscatter and neutralization of the solar wind: first observations of neutral atoms from the Moon. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L12104 (2009). doi:10.1029/2009GL038794

  107. McCoy, J.E.: Photometric studies of light scattering above the lunar terminator from Apollo solar corona photography. In: Proceedings of Lunar Science Conference, 7th, pp. 1087–1112 (1976)

    Google Scholar 

  108. McCoy, J.E., Criswell, D.R.: Evidence for a high altitude distribution of lunar dust. In: Proceedings of Lunar Science Conference, 5th, pp. 2991–3005 (1974)

    Google Scholar 

  109. McCoy, J.E., Lin, R.P., McGuire, R.E., Chase, L.M., Anderson, K.A.: Magnetotail electric fields observed from Lunar orbit. J. Geophys. Res. 80, 3217–3224 (1975). doi:10.1029/JA080i022p03217

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. McCracken, G.M.: The behaviour of surfaces under ion bombardment. Rep. Prog. Phys. 38(2), 241 (1975). doi:10.1088/0034-4885/38/2/002. http://stacks.iop.org/0034-4885/38/i=2/a=002

  111. McGrath, M.A., Johnson, R.E., Lanzerotti, L.J.: Sputtering of sodium on the planet Mercury. Nature 323, 694–696 (1986). doi:10.1038/323694a0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Michel, F.C.: Magnetic field structure behind the moon. J. Geophys. Res. 73, 1533–1542 (1968). doi:10.1029/JA073i005p01533

    Article  Google Scholar 

  113. Murphy, D.L., Vondrak, R.R.: Effects of levitated dust on astronomical observations from the Lunar surface. In: Proceedings of Lunar Planetery Science Conference, 24th, pp. 889 (1993)

    Google Scholar 

  114. Nagy, A., Winterhalter, D., Sauer, K., Cravens, T., Brecht, S., Mazelle, C., Crider, D., Kallio, E., Zakharov, A., Dubinin, E., Verigin, M., Kotova, G., Axford, W., Bertucci, C., Trotignon, J.: The plasma environment of Mars. Space Sci. Rev. 111(1–2), 33–114 (2004). doi:10.1023/B:SPAC.0000032718.47512.92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  115. Nakagawa, T.: Ion entry into the wake behind a nonmagnetized obstacle in the solar wind: Two-dimensional particle-in-cell simulations. J. Geophys. Res. 118(5), 1849–1860 (2013). doi:10.1002/jgra.50129. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jgra.50129

  116. Nakagawa, T., Nakayama, A., Takahashi, F., Tsunakawa, H., Shibuya, H., Shimizu, H., Matsushima, M.: Large-amplitude monochromatic ULF waves detected by Kaguya at the Moon. J. Geophys. Res. 117, A04101 (2012). doi:10.1029/2011JA017249

  117. Nakagawa, T., Takahashi, F., Tsunakawa, H., Shibuya, H., Shimizu, H., Matsushima, M.: Non-monochromatic whistler waves detected by Kaguya on the dayside surface of the moon. Earth Planets Space 63(1), 37–46 (2011). doi:10.5047/eps.2010.01.005. Thirrd Kaguya Science Meeting on Earth, Planets and Space, Tokyo, Japan, 14–15 Jan 2009

  118. Nakagawa, T., Takahashi, Y., Iizima, M.: GEOTAIL observation of upstream ULF waves associated with lunar wake. Earth Planets Space 55(9), 569–580 (2003)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  119. Ness, N.F., Behannon, K.W., Lepping, R.P., Whang, Y.C., Schatten, K.H.: Magnetic field observations near mercury: preliminary results from mariner 10. Science 185(4146), 151–160 (1974). doi:10.1126/science.185.4146.151. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/185/4146/151.abstract

  120. Ness, N.F., Behannon, K.W., Scearce, C.S., Cantara, S.C.: Early results from the magnetic field experiment on lunar explorer 35. J. Geophys. Res. 72, 5769–5778 (1967). doi:10.1029/JZ072i023p05769

    Article  Google Scholar 

  121. Ness, N.F., Behannon, K.W., Taylor, H.E., Whang, Y.C.: Perturbations of the interplanetary magnetic field by the lunar wake. J. Geophys. Res. 73, 3421–3440 (1968). doi:10.1029/JA073i011p03421

    Article  Google Scholar 

  122. Neugebauer, M., Snyder, C.W., Clay, D.R., Goldstein, B.E.: Solar wind observations on the lunar surface with the Apollo-12 ALSEP. Planet. Space Sci. 20, 1577–1591 (1972). doi:10.1016/0032-0633(72)90184-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  123. Niehus, H., Heiland, W., Taglauer, E.: Low-energy ion scattering at surfaces. Surface Science Reports 17(4–5), 213–303 (1993). doi:10.1016/0167-5729(93)90024-J. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/016757299390%024J

  124. Nishida, A., Lyon, E.F.: Plasma sheet at lunar distance: structure and solar-wind dependence. J. Geophys. Res. 77, 4086–4099 (1972). doi:10.1029/JA077i022p04086

    Article  Google Scholar 

  125. Nishino, M.N., Fujimoto, M., Maezawa, K., Saito, Y., Yokota, S., Asamura, K., Tanaka, T., Tsunakawa, H., Matsushima, M., Takahashi, F., Terasawa, T., Shibuya, H., Shimizu, H.: Solar-Wind proton access deep into the near-moon wake. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L16103 (2009). doi:10.1029/2009GL039444

  126. Nishino, M.N., Fujimoto, M., Saito, Y., Yokota, S., Kasahara, Y., Omura, Y., Goto, Y., Hashimoto, K., Kumamoto, A., Ono, T., Tsunakawa, H., Matsushima, M., Takahashi, F., Shibuya, H., Shimizu, H., Terasawa, T.: Effect of the solar wind proton entry into the deepest lunar wake. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37, L12106 (2010). doi:10.1029/2010GL043948

  127. Nishino, M.N., Fujimoto, M., Tsunakawa, H., Matsushima, M., Shibuya, H., Shimizu, H., Takahashi, F., Saito, Y., Yokota, S.: Control of lunar external magnetic enhancements by IMF polarity: a case study. Planet. Space Sci. 73(1), 161–167 (2012). doi:10.1016/j.pss.2012.09.011. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S00320633120%02863

  128. Nishino, M.N., Maezawa, K., Fujimoto, M., Saito, Y., Yokota, S., Asamura, K., Tanaka, T., Tsunakawa, H., Matsushima, M., Takahashi, F., Terasawa, T., Shibuya, H., Shimizu, H.: Pairwise energy gain-loss feature of solar wind protons in the near-Moon wake. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L12108 (2009). doi:10.1029/2009GL039049

  129. Nitter, T., Havnes, O., Melandso, F.: Levitation and dynamics of charged dust in the photoelectron sheath above surfaces in space. J. Geophys. Res. 103(A4), 6605–6620 (1998). doi:10.1029/97JA03523

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. Ogilvie, K.W., Steinberg, J.T., Fitzenreiter, R.J., Owen, C.J., Lazarus, A.J., Farrell, W.M., Torbet, R.B.: Observations of the lunar plasma wake from the WIND spacecraft on December 27, 1994. Geophys. Res. Lett. 23, 1255–1258 (1996). doi:10.1029/96GL01069

    Article  Google Scholar 

  131. Pedersen, A.: Solar wind and magnetosphere plasma diagnostics by spacecraft electrostatic potential measurements. Ann. Geophys. 13(2), 118–129 (1995). doi:10.1007/s00585-995-0118-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  132. Poppe, A., Halekas, J.S., Horányi, M.: Negative potentials above the day-side lunar surface in the terrestrial plasma sheet: Evidence of non-monotonic potentials. Geophys. Res. Lett. 38, L02103 (2011). doi:10.1029/2010GL046119

  133. Poppe, A., Horányi, M.: Simulations of the photoelectron sheath and dust levitation on the lunar surface. J. Geophys. Res. 115, A08106 (2010). doi:10.1029/2010JA015286

  134. Poppe, A.R., Halekas, J.S., Delory, G.T., Farrell, W.M.: Particle-in-cell simulations of the solar wind interaction with lunar crustal magnetic anomalies: magnetic cusp regions. J. Geophys. Res. 117, A09105 (2012). doi:10.1029/2012JA017844

  135. Poppe, A.R., Halekas, J.S., Samad, R., Sarantos, M., Delory, G.T.: Model-based constraints on the lunar exosphere derived from ARTEMIS pickup ion observations in the terrestrial magnetotail. J. Geophys. Res. 118(5), 1135–1147 (2013). doi:10.1002/jgre.20090. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jgre.20090

  136. Poppe, A.R., Piquette, M., Likhanskii, A., Horányi, M.: The effect of surface topography on the lunar photoelectron sheath and electrostatic dust transport. Icarus 221(1), 135–146 (2012). doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2012.07.018

    Article  Google Scholar 

  137. Poppe, A.R., Samad, R., Halekas, J.S., Sarantos, M., Delory, G.T., Farrell, W.M., Angelopoulos, V., McFadden, J.P.: ARTEMIS observations of lunar pick-up ions in the terrestrial magnetotail lobes. Geophys. Res. Lett. 39, L17104 (2012). doi:10.1029/2012GL052909

  138. Potter, A.E., Morgan, T.H.: Discovery of sodium and potassium vapor in the atmosphere of the Moon. Science 241(4866), 675–680 (1988). doi:10.1126/science.241.4866.675. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/241/4866/675.abstract

  139. Reasoner, D.L., Burke, W.J.: Characteristics of the lunar photoelectron layer in the geomagnetic tail. J. Geophys. Res. 77(34), 6671–000 (1972). doi:10.1029/JA077i034p06671

    Article  Google Scholar 

  140. Reiff, P.H.: Magnetic shadowing of charged particles by an extended surface. J. Geophys. Res. 81(19), 3423–3427 (1976). doi:10.1029/JA081i019p03423

    Article  Google Scholar 

  141. Reiff, P.H., Burke, W.J.: Interactions of the plasma sheet with the lunar surface at the apollo 14 site. J. Geophys. Res. 81(25), 4761–4764 (1976). doi:10.1029/JA081i025p04761

    Article  Google Scholar 

  142. Rich, F.J., Reasoner, D.L., Burke, W.J.: Plasma sheet at lunar distance: characteristics and interactions with the lunar surface. J. Geophys. Res. 78(34), 8097–8112 (1973). doi:10.1029/JA078i034p08097

    Article  Google Scholar 

  143. Rich, F.J., Reasoner, D.L., Burke, W.J., Hones, E.W.: Plasma sheet at lunar distance during magnetospheric substorm. J. Geophys. Res. 79(13), 1981–1984 (1974). doi:10.1029/JA079i013p01981

    Article  Google Scholar 

  144. Richmond, N.C., Hood, L.L.: A preliminary global map of the vector lunar crustal magnetic field based on Lunar prospector magnetometer data. J. Geophys. Res. 113(E2), E02010 (2008). doi:10.1029/2007JE002933

  145. Richmond, N.C., Hood, L.L., Halekas, J.S., Mitchell, D.L., Lin, R.P., Acuña, M., Binder, A.B.: Correlation of a strong lunar magnetic anomaly with a high-albedo region of the descartes mountains. Geophys. Res. Lett. 30, 1395 (2003). doi:10.1029/2003GL016938

    Article  Google Scholar 

  146. Rodríguez M., D., Saul, L., Wurz, P., Fuselier, S., Funsten, H., McComas, D., Möbius, E.: IBEX-Lo observations of energetic neutral hydrogen atoms originating from the lunar surface. Planet. Space Sci. 60(1), 297–303 (2012). doi:10.1016/j.pss.2011.09.009. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S00320633110%02972

  147. Roussos, E., Müller, J., Simon, S., Bößwetter, A., Motschmann, U., Krupp, N., Fränz, M., Woch, J., Khurana, K.K., Dougherty, M.K.: Plasma and fields in the wake of Rhea: 3-D hybrid simulation and comparison with Cassini data. Ann. Geophys. 26(3), 619–637 (2008). doi:10.5194/angeo-26-619-2008. http://www.ann-geophys.net/26/619/2008/

  148. Russell, C.T.: The dynamics of planetary magnetospheres. Planet. Space Sci. 49, 1005–1030 (2001). doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(01)00017-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  149. Russell, C.T., Lichtenstein, B.R.: On the source of lunar limb compressions. J. Geophys. Res. 80, 4700–4711 (1975). doi:10.1029/JA080i034p04700

    Article  Google Scholar 

  150. Saito, Y., Nishino, M., Yokota, S., Tsunakawa, H., Matsushima, M., Takahashi, F., Shibuya, H., Shimizu, H.: Night side lunar surface potential in the Earth’s magnetosphere. Adv. Space Res. (2013). doi:10.1016/j.asr.2013.05.011. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S02731177130%02664

  151. Saito, Y., Nishino, M.N., Fujimoto, M., Yamamoto, T., Yokota, S., Tsunakawa, H., Shibuya, H., Matsushima, M., Shimizu, H., Takahashi, F.: Simultaneous observation of the electron acceleration and ion deceleration over lunar magnetic anomalies. Earth Planets Space 64, 83–92 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  152. Saito, Y., Yokota, S., Asamura, K., Tanaka, T., Akiba, R., Fujimoto, M., Hasegawa, H., Hayakawa, H., Hirahara, M., Hoshino, M., Machida, S., Mukai, T., Nagai, T., Nagatsuma, T., Nakamura, M., ichiro Oyama, K., Sagawa, E., Sasaki, S., Seki, K., Terasawa, T.: Low-energy charged particle measurement by MAP-PACE onboard SELENE. Earth Planets Space 60, 375–385 (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  153. Saito, Y., Yokota, S., Asamura, K., Tanaka, T., Nishino, M.N., Yamamoto, T., Terakawa, Y., Fujimoto, M., Hasegawa, H., Hayakawa, H., Hirahara, M., Hoshino, M., Machida, S., Mukai, T., Nagai, T., Nagatsuma, T., Nakagawa, T., Nakamura, M., ichiro Oyama, K., Sagawa, E., Sasaki, S., Seki, K., Shinohara, I., Terasawa, T., Tsunakawa, H., Shibuya, H., Matsushima, M., Shimizu, H., Takahashi, F.: In-flight performance and initial results of plasma energy angle and composition experiment (PACE) on SELENE (Kaguya). Space Sci. Rev. 154, 265–303 (2010). doi:10.1007/s11214-010-9647-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  154. Saito, Y., Yokota, S., Tanaka, T., Asamura, K., Nishino, M.N., Fujimoto, M., Tsunakawa, H., Shibuya, H., Matsushima, M., Shimizu, H., Takahashi, F., Mukai, T., Terasawa, T.: Solar wind proton reflection at the lunar surface: low energy ion measurement by MAP-PACE onboard SELENE (KAGUYA). Geophys. Res. Lett. 35, L24205 (2008). doi:10.1029/2008GL036077

  155. Samir Jr, U., Wright, K.H., Stone, N.H.: The expansion of a plasma into a vacuum: basic phenomena and processes and applications to space plasma physics. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 21(7), 1631–1646 (1983). doi:10.1029/RG021i007p01631

  156. Sarantos, M., Hartle, R.E., Killen, R.M., Saito, Y., Slavin, J.A., Glocer, A.: Flux estimates of ions from the lunar exosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 39, L13101 (2012). doi:10.1029/2012GL052001

  157. Schaufelberger, A., Wurz, P., Barabash, S., Wieser, M., Futaana, Y., Holmström, M., Bhardwaj, A., Dhanya, M.B., Sridharan, R., Asamura, K.: Scattering function for energetic neutral hydrogen atoms off the lunar surface. Geophys. Res. Lett. 38, L22202 (2011). doi:10.1029/2011GL049362

  158. Schmidt, R., Arends, H., Pedersen, A., Riidenauer, F., Fehringer, M., Narheim, B.T., Svenes, R., Kvernsveen, K., Tsuruda, K., Mukai, T., Hayakawa, H., Nakamura, M.: Results from active spacecraft potential control on the geotail spacecraft. J. Geophys. Res. 100(A9), 17253–17259 (1995). doi:10.1029/95JA01552

  159. Schubert, G., Lichtenstein, B.R.: Observations of Moon–Plasma interactions by orbital and surface experiment. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 12, 592–626 (1974). doi:10.1029/RG012i004p00592

    Article  Google Scholar 

  160. Schubert, G., Lichtenstein, B.R., Russell C.T., Coleman Jr, P.J., Smith, B.F., Colburn, D.S., Sonett, C.P.: Lunar dayside plasma sheet depletion: Inference from magnetic observations. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1, 97–100 (1974). doi:10.1029/GL001i003p00097

  161. Sigmund, P.: Theory of sputtering. i. sputtering yield of amorphous and polycrystalline targets. Phys. Rev. 184, 383–416 (1969). doi:10.1103/PhysRev.184.383. http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRev.184.383

  162. Simon, S., Saur, J., Neubauer, F.M., Motschmann, U., Dougherty, M.K.: Plasma wake of Tethys: Hybrid simulations versus Cassini MAG data. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L04,108 (2009). doi:10.1029/2008GL036943

  163. Sonett, C.P., Mihalov, J.D.: Lunar fossil magnetism and perturbations of the solar wind. J. Geophys. Res. 77, 588–603 (1972). doi:10.1029/JA077i004p00588

    Article  Google Scholar 

  164. Stern, S.: The lunar atmosphere: History, status, current problems, and context. Rev. Geophys. 37(4), 453–491 (1999). doi:10.1029/1999RG900005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  165. Stubbs, T., Farrell, W., Halekas, J., Burchill, J., Collier, M., Zimmerman, M., Vondrak, R., Delory, G., Pfaff, R.: Dependence of lunar surface charging on solar wind plasma conditions and solar irradiation. Planet. Space Sci. (2013). doi:10.1016/j.pss.2013.07.008. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S00320633130%01876

  166. Stubbs, T., Vondrak, R., Farrell, W.: A dynamic fountain model for lunar dust. Adv. Space Res. 37(1), 59–66 (2006). doi:10.1016/j.asr.2005.04.048

    Article  Google Scholar 

  167. Stubbs, T.J., Glenar, D.A., Farrell, W.M., Vondrak, R.R., Collier, M.R., Halekas, J.S., Delory, G.T.: On the role of dust in the lunar ionosphere. Planet. Space Sci. 59(13), 1659–1664 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.pss.2011.05.011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  168. Tanaka, T., Saito, Y., Yokota, S., Asamura, K., Nishino, M.N., Tsunakawa, H., Shibuya, H., Matsushima, M., Shimizu, H., Takahashi, F., Fujimoto, M., Mukai, T., Terasawa, T.: First in situ observation of the Moon-originating ions in the Earth’s Magnetosphere by MAP-PACE on SELENE (KAGUYA). Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L22106 (2009). doi:10.1029/2009GL040682

  169. Tao, J.B., Ergun, R.E., Newman, D.L., Halekas, J.S., Andersson, L., Angelopoulos, V., Bonnell, J.W., McFadden, J.P., Cully, C.M., Auster, H.U., Glassmeier, K.H., Larson, D.E., Baumjohann, W., Goldman, M.V.: Kinetic instabilities in the lunar wake: ARTEMIS observations. J. Geophys. Res. 117, A03106 (2012). doi:10.1029/2011JA017364

  170. Thompson, M.W.: The energy spectrum of ejected atoms during the high energy sputtering of gold. Philos. Mag. 18(152), 377–414 (1968). doi:10.1080/14786436808227358. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14786436808227358

  171. Townsend, P.C.: Sputtering by electrons and photons. Sputtering Particle Bombardment II 52, 147–178 (1983)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  172. Tsugawa, Y., Katoh, Y., Terada, N., Ono, T., Tsunakawa, H., Takahashi, F., Shibuya, H., Shimizu, H., Matsushima, M., Saito, Y., Yokota, S., Nishino, M.N.: Statistical study of broadband whistler-mode waves detected by Kaguya near the Moon. Geophys. Res. Lett. 39, L16101 (2012). doi:10.1029/2012GL052818

  173. Tsugawa, Y., Terada, N., Katoh, Y., Ono, T., Tsunakawa, H., Takahashi, F., Shibuya, H., Shimizu, H., Matsushima, M.: Statistical analysis of monochromatic whistler waves near the Moon detected by Kaguya. Ann. Geophys. 29(5), 889–893 (2011). doi:10.5194/angeo-29-889-2011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  174. Tsurutani, B.T.: Comets: a laboratory for plasma waves and instabilities. Geophys. Monogr. Ser. 61, 189–209 (1991). doi:10.1029/GM061p0189

    Google Scholar 

  175. Umeda, T.: Effect of ion cyclotron motion on the structure of wakes: a vlasov simulation. Earth Planets Space 64, 231–236 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  176. Van Allen, J.A., Ness, N.F.: Particle shadowing by the Moon. J. Geophys. Res. 74, 71–93 (1969). doi:10.1029/JA074i001p00071

    Article  Google Scholar 

  177. Vorburger, A., Wurz, P., Barabash, S., Wieser, M., Futaana, Y., Holmström, M., Bhardwaj, A., Asamura, K.: Energetic neutral atom observations of magnetic anomalies on the lunar surface. J. Geophys. Res. 117, A07208 (2012). doi:10.1029/2012JA017553

  178. Vorburger, A., Wurz, P., Barabash, S., Wieser, M., Futaana, Y., Lue, C., Holmström, M., Bhardwaj, A., Dhanya, M.B., Asamura, K.: Energetic neutral atom imaging of the lunar surface. J. Geophys. Res. 118, 3937–3945 (2013). doi:10.1002/jgra.50337. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jgra.50337

  179. Wang, X., Horányi, M., Robertson, S.: Characteristics of a plasma sheath in a magnetic dipole field: Implications to the solar wind interaction with the lunar magnetic anomalies. J. Geophys. Res. 117, A06226 (2012). doi:10.1029/2012JA017635

  180. Wang, X.D., Zong, Q.G., Wang, J.S., Cui, J., Rème, H., Dandouras, I., Aoustin, C., Tan, X., Shen, J., Ren, X., Liu, J.J., Zuo, W., Su, Y., Wen, W.B., Wang, F., Fu, Q., Mu, L.L., Wang, X.Q., Geng, L., Zhang, Z.B., Liu, J.Z., Zhang, H.B., Li, C.L., Ouyang, Z.Y.: Detection of m/q = 2 pickup ions in the plasma environment of the Moon: The trace of exospheric H\(_2\) \(^+\). Geophys. Res. Lett. 38, L14204 (2011). doi:10.1029/2011GL047488

  181. Whang, Y.C.: Interaction of the magnetized solar wind with the moon. Phys. Fluids 11, 969–975 (1968). doi:10.1063/1.1692068

    Article  Google Scholar 

  182. Whang, Y.C.: Theoretical study of the magnetic field in the lunar wake. Phys. Fluids 11, 1713–1719 (1968). doi:10.1063/1.1692185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  183. Whipple, E.C.: Potentials of Surfaces in Space. Rep. Prog. Phys. 44(11), 1197–1250 (1981). doi:10.1088/0034-4885/44/11/002. http://stacks.iop.org/0034-4885/44/i=11/a=002

  184. Wiehle, S., Plaschke, F., Motschmann, U., Glassmeier, K.H., Auster, H.U., Angelopoulos, V., Mueller, J., Kriegel, H., Georgescu, E., Halekas, J., Sibeck, D.G., McFadden, J.P.: First lunar wake passage of ARTEMIS: Discrimination of wake effects and solar wind fluctuations by 3D hybrid simulations. Planet. Space Sci. 59(8), 661–671 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.pss.2011.01.012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  185. Wiens, R.C., Burnett, D.S., Calaway, W.F., Pellin, M.J.: Experimental studies of the role of photodesorption in the formation of planetary Na atmospheres. Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 25, 1089 (1993)

    Google Scholar 

  186. Wieser, M., Barabash, S., Futaana, Y., Holmström, M., Bhardwaj, A., Sridharan, R., Dhanya, M.B., Schaufelberger, A., Wurz, P., Asamura, K.: First observation of a mini-magnetosphere above a lunar magnetic anomaly using energetic neutral atoms. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37, L05103 (2010). doi:10.1029/2009GL041721

  187. Wieser, M., Barabash, S., Futaana, Y., Holmström, M., Bhardwaj, A., Sridharan, R., Dhanya, M.B., Wurz, P., Schaufelberger, A., Asamura, K.: Extremely high reflection of solar wind protons as neutral hydrogen atoms from regolith in space. Planet. Space Sci. 57(14–15), 2132–2134 (2009). doi:10.1016/j.pss.2009.09.012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  188. Winslow, R.M., Johnson, C.L., Anderson, B.J., Korth, H., Slavin, J.A., Purucker, M.E., Solomon, S.C.: Observations of Mercury’s northern cusp region with MESSENGER’s Magnetometer. Geophys. Res. Lett. 39, L08112 (2012). doi:10.1029/2012GL051472

  189. Wurz, P., Lammer, H.: Monte-carlo simulation of mercury’s exosphere. Icarus 164(1), 1–13 (2003). doi:10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00123-4. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S00191035030%01234

  190. Yokota, S., Saito, Y.: Estimation of picked-up lunar ions for future compositional remote SIMS analyses of the lunar surface. Earth Planets Space 57(4), 281–289 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  191. Yokota, S., Saito, Y., Asamura, K., Tanaka, T., Nishino, M.N., Tsunakawa, H., Shibuya, H., Matsushima, M., Shimizu, H., Takahashi, F., Fujimoto, M., Mukai, T., Terasawa, T.: First direct detection of ions originating from the Moon by MAP-PACE IMA onboard SELENE (KAGUYA). Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L11201 (2009). doi:10.1029/2009GL038185

  192. Zhang, H., Khurana, K.K., Zong, Q.G., Kivelson, M.G., Hsu, T.S., Wan, W.X., Pu, Z.Y., Angelopoulos, V., Cao, X., Wang, Y.F., Shi, Q.Q., Liu, W.L., Tian, A.M., Tang, C.L.: Outward expansion of the lunar wake: Artemis observations, Geophys. Res. Lett. 39, L18104 (2012). doi:10.1029/2012GL052839

  193. Zhou, X.Z., Angelopoulos, V., Poppe, A.R., Halekas, J.S.: Artemis observations of lunar pick-up ions: mass constraints on ion species. J. Geophys. Res. 118, 1766–1774 (2013). doi:10.1002/jgre.20125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jgre.20125

  194. Zimmerman, M.I., Farrell, W.M., Stubbs, T.J., Halekas, J.S., Jackson, T.L.: Solar wind access to lunar polar craters: feedback between surface charging and plasma expansion. Geophys. Res. Lett. 38, L19202 (2011). doi:10.1029/2011GL048880

  195. Zimmerman, M.I., Jackson, T.L., Farrell, W.M., Stubbs, T.J.: Plasma wake simulations and object charging in a shadowed lunar crater during a solar storm. J. Geophys. Res. 117, E00K03 (2012). doi:10.1029/2012JE004094

  196. Zurbuchen, T.H., Raines, J.M., Slavin, J.A., Gershman, D.J., Gilbert, J.A., Gloeckler, G., Anderson, B.J., Baker, D.N., Korth, H., Krimigis, S.M., Sarantos, M., Schriver, D., McNutt Jr, R.L., Solomon, S.C.: MESSENGER observations of the spatial distribution of planetary ions near Mercury. Science 333(6051), 1862–1865 (2011). doi:10.1126/science.1211302

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yuki Harada .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer Japan

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Harada, Y. (2015). Introduction. In: Interactions of Earth’s Magnetotail Plasma with the Surface, Plasma, and Magnetic Anomalies of the Moon. Springer Theses. Springer, Tokyo. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55084-6_1

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics