Abstract
After having discussed alternative theories available to illuminate the question why some academic research units achieve more technology transfer results than others, this chapter will design a conceptual research model on the basis of the theory we identified as best suited to analyze the problem.
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References
See Covin and Slevin (1991), pp. 19–20. Performance is viewed as revenue generation and profit-ability, given that the authors designed their concept for the private sector.
Wiklund and Shepherd (2005), p. 75.
See Wiklund (1999), p. 37. Zahra and Covin (1995), examining 109 firms across sizes and indus-tries, also found a positive relation between entrepreneurship orientation and performance.
See Zahra (1991), p. 259.
See Covin and Slevin (1988), p. 217.
See Smart and Conant (1994), p. 28.
See Hart (1992), p. 346.
See Atuahene-Gima and Ko (2001), p. 68.
See Bhuian, Menguc and Bell (2005), p. 3.
See Lumpkin and Dess (1996), p. 135.
See Wiklund and Shepherd (2005), p. 80.
See Autio, Keeley, Klofsten and Ulfstedt (1997), and Homburg and Pflesser (2000), p. 449.
See Lyon, Lumpkin and Dess (2000), p. 1055.
See Naman and Slevin (1993), p. 137.
See Miller and Friesen (1978), pp. 922–923.
See Miller (1983), pp. 773–774.
See Lumpkin and Dess (1996), pp. 153–155.
Lyon, Lumpkin and Dess (2000), p. 1058.
See Boyd, Dess and Rasheed (1993), p. 226.
See Hambrick (1981), p. 260. Other advantages named by Glick, Huber, Miller, Doty and Sutcliffe (1990), p. 303, are reduced cost by examining just one respondent per organization, and increased like-lihood that an organization will participate if only one individual is asked.
See Podsakoff and Organ (1986), p. 531, who discuss problems in self-reporting such as common method variance, consistency motif, and social desirability.
See Boyd, Dess and Rasheed (1993), pp. 215–216.
See Covin and Slevin (1991), p. 8. The authors argue that the issue of measurability gives advantage to a behavioral model, given that behavior is overt and demonstrable. However, it has to be noted that the causes for a behavior, e.g. an orientation, are not easily observable and measurable. Therefore, by limiting measurement to observable behavior variables, a researcher limits his access to available in-formation.
See Jauch, Osborn and Martin (1980), p. 517, who describe this approach of content analysis in more detail.
See Chen and Hambrick (1995), p. 453, and Chen and MacMillan (1992), p. 539, who applied these methods to the U.S. airlines industry, and compared reactions of smaller and larger companies.
See Lyon, Lumpkin and Dess (2000), p. 1061.
See Ferrier, Smith and Grimm (1999), p. 375.
Lyon, Lumpkin and Dess (2000), p. 1061.
See Miller and Friesen (1978), p. 922.
See Hitt, Hoskisson and Kim (1997), p. 778.
E.g. Hambrick and MacMillan (1985), p. 535, and Hitt, Hoskisson and Kim (1997), p. 778, both work with the indicator of research & development spending per unit as a proxy for a company’;s inno-vativeness.
van den Ven (1986), p. 591.
See Lyon, Lumpkin and Dess (2000), p. 1063.
See Lyon, Lumpkin and Dess (2000), p. 153.
See Powers (2000), p. 14.
Wiklund and Shepherd (2005), p. 80.
See Powers (2000), p. 67.
See Rogers, Takegami and Yin (2001), pp. 253–255.
See Rogers, Takegami and Yin (2001), p. 254.
See Dess and Robinson (1984).
Dess and Robinson (1984), p. 265.
Homburg et al. have encountered similar problems in their study of 2,610 strategic business units. See Homburg, Krohmer and Workman (2004), p. 1335.
Dess and Robinson (1984), p. 271.
See Lumpkin and Dess (1996).
See Rogers, Takegami and Yin (2001).
See Lumpkin and Dess (1996), p. 140.
See van den Ven (1986), p. 590.
See Schumpeter (1934).
See Miller and Friesen (1978), p. 923.
See Schumpeter (1934) and Penrose (1958).
Lumpkin and Dess (1996), p. 151.
See Lyon, Lumpkin and Dess (2000).
See Chaganti, DeCarolis and Deeds (1995).
See Hisrich and Brush (1982), Hisrich and Brush (1985).
See Lerner, Brush and Hisrich (1997).
See Shane, Venkataraman and MacMillan (1995).
Articles discussed in this passage are limited to those following a managerial perception approach, i.e. data and results are obtained mostly based on surveys. Those articles following a firm behavior or a resource allocation approach are not discussed. These articles would include the works of Hitt, Hoskis-son and Kim (1997), Hundley, Jacobson and Park (1996), Kelm, Narayanan and Pinches (1995), Kochhar and David (1996), and Kotabe and Swan (1995).
See Miller and Friesen (1982), p. 24. The authors view innovativeness from a product innovation perspective.
See Covin and Slevin (1989), p. 86. Covin and Slevin’;s approach in more focused on the strategic posture element of an organization, therefore being more applicable to the problem of entrepreneurial orientation in research organizations.
See Hart (1991). Other scales used in this context were developed by Khandwalla (1977) and Robinson, Stimpson, Huefner and Hunt (1991).
See Becherer and Maurer (1997).
See Sapienza and Grimm (1997).
See Barringer and Bluedorn (1999). The five strategic management practices include scanning in-tensity, planning flexibility, planning horizon, locus of planning, and control attributes.
See Koberg, Uhlenbruck and Sarason (1996).
See Knight (1997).
See Barney, Busenitz, Fiet and Moesel (1996).
See Porter (1980).
See Sandberg and Hofer (1987).
See Kassicieh, Radosevich and Umbarger (1996) and Robinson, Stimpson, Huefner and Hunt (1991) which both are part of the relevant set of studies listed in Chapter 4.3.
See Hitt, Hoskisson, Johnson and Moesel (1996). Primary variables in this study were acquisition intensity, divesture intensity, financial controls, strategic controls, external innovation, and internal innovation. A seven-point Likert scale, asking for managerial perceptions, measured external innova-tions. Internal innovations were measured as resource allocation in form of R&D intensity over sales, and as firm behavior in form of the mean of new products introduced over the last two years.
See Rajagopalan (1997).
See Tan (1997).
See Zahra (1996b) and Zahra (1996a).
See Schumpeter (1934) and Penrose (1958).
See Covin and Slevin (1991).
See Covin and Slevin (1991), p. 7.
The following will only present studies that focus on managerial perceptions, i.e. conducted surveys. For other studies focusing on firm behavior or resource allocation in the context of proactiveness, please refer to Chen and Hambrick (1995) and Smith, Grimm, Wally and Young (1997).
See Barringer and Bluedorn (1999).
See Becherer and Maurer (1997).
See Sapienza and Grimm (1997).
See Knight (1997).
See Zahra and Covin (1995).
See Aragón-Correa (1998).
Both authors were already mentioned in the previous section, referring to Tan (1997), Zahra (1996b), and Zahra (1996a).
See Chen and Hambrick (1995).
Chen and Hambrick (1995), p. 457.
See Chen and Hambrick (1995).
317 See Kohli and Jaworski (1990), p. 3.
See Narver and Slater (1990), pp. 21–22. 319 See Homburg and Pflesser (2000), p. 459. The authors work with four items on the construct of “openness of market-related internal communication.”
See Lumpkin and Dess (1996), p. 139.
Miller (1983), p. 771.
See Porter (1985).
Other articles dealing with competitiveness, however not on the basis of managerial perceptions, are the ones of Dess, Lumpkin and Covin (1997), and Smith, Grimm, Wally and Young (1997), using ob-servable firm behavior.
See Zahra and Covin (1995), p. 51.
See Miller and Friesen (1982), p. 17–24.
See Covin and Slevin (1989), p. 86.
See Homburg and Pflesser (2000), p. 459.
See Barringer and Bluedorn (1999).
See Becherer and Maurer (1997).
See Tan (1997).
See Jackson (1976).
See Busenitz and Barney (1997).
See Gomez-Mejia and Balkin (1989).
See Palich and Bagby (1995).
See Sitkin and Weingart (1995), p. 1592.
Badawy (1988), p. 21.
DFG (2004).
As an example of the German federal governmental policies, see BMBF (2004b), p. XIII.
See BMBF (2004b), p. VI.
See Baker (2003).
See Brand and Segelken (2002).
Liebeskind, Oliver, Zucker and Brewer (1996), p. 428.
Oliver (2004), p. 583.
See Cooper (1984); Dess and Robinson (1984); Gupta and Govindarajan (1984).
See Covin et al. (1990), and Sapienza (1989, 1992), who modeled after an instrument developed by Gupta and Govindarajan (1984) to estimate the performance of organization sub-units.
See Rogers, Takegami and Yin (2001), pp. 254–255.
See Dess and Lumpkin (2005)
See Powers (2000), p. 14.
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(2008). Conceptual Model and Hypotheses. In: Entrepreneurial Orientation in Academia. Gabler. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-8350-5572-8_4
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