Advertisement

Functional exploration for neuropathic pain

Chapter
Part of the Advances and Technical Standards in Neurosurgery book series (NEUROSURGERY, volume 37)

Abstract

Neuropathic pain (NP) may become refractory to conservative medical management, necessitating neurosurgical procedures in carefully selected cases. In this context, the functional neurosurgeon must have suitable knowledge of the disease he or she intends to treat, especially its pathophysiology. This latter factor has been studied thanks to advances in the functional exploration of NP, which will be detailed in this review. The study of the flexion reflex is a useful tool for clinical and pharmacological pain assessment and for exploring the mechanisms of pain at multiple levels. The main use of evoked potentials is to confirm clinical, or detect subclinical, dysfunction in peripheral and central somato-sensory pain pathways. LEP and SEP techniques are especially useful when used in combination, allowing the exploration of both pain and somato-sensory pathways. PET scans and fMRI documented rCBF increases to noxious stimuli. In patients with chronic NP, a decreased resting rCBF is observed in the contralateral thalamus, which may be reversed using analgesic procedures. Abnormal pain evoked by innocuous stimuli (allodynia) has been associated with amplification of the thalamic, insular and SII responses, concomitant to a paradoxical CBF decrease in ACC. Multiple PET studies showed that endogenous opioid secretion is very likely to occur as a reaction to pain. In addition, brain opioid receptors (OR) remain relatively untouched in peripheral NP, while a loss of ORs is most likely to occur in central NP, within the medial nociceptive pathways. PET receptor studies have also proved that antalgic Motor Cortex Stimulation (MCS), indicated in severe refractory NP, induces endogenous opioid secretion in key areas of the endogenous opioid system, which may explain one of the mechanisms of action of this procedure, since the secretion is proportional to the analgesic effect.

Keywords

Neuropathic pain flexion reflex endogenous opioid system positron emission tomography motor cortex stimulation fMRI SEP LEP 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. 1.
    Adler LJ, Gyulai FE, Diehl DJ et al. (1997) Regional brain activity changes associated with fentanyl analgesia elucidated by positron emission tomography. Anesth Analg 84: 120–126PubMedGoogle Scholar
  2. 2.
    Allison T, McCarthy G, Wood CC et al. (1989) Human cortical potentials evoked by stimulation of the median nerve II. Cytoarchitectonic areas generating long-latency activity. J Neurophysiol 62: 711–722PubMedGoogle Scholar
  3. 3.
    Amantini A, Lombardi M, de Scisciolo G et al. (1996) CO2-laser and electric somato-sensory evoked potentials in Friedreich’s ataxia. Electroenceph Clin Neurophysiol 46 (Suppl): 233–240Google Scholar
  4. 4.
    Andersen G, Vestergaard K, Ingeman-Nielsen M, Jensen TS (1995) Incidence of central post-stroke pain. Pain 61(2): 187–193PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Arendt-Nielsen L (1990) Second pain event related potentials to argon laser stimuli: recording and quantification. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 53: 405–410PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Baron R, Baron Y, Disbrow E, Roberts TPL (1999) Brain processing of capsaicin-induced secondary hyperalgesia. A functional MRI study. Neurology 53: 548–557PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Becker DE, Yingling CD, Fein G (1993) Identification of pain, intensity and P300 components in the pain evoked potential. Electroenceph Clin Neurophysiol 88: 290–301PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Beydoun A, Dyke DB, Morrow TJ, Casey KL (1996) Topical capsaicin selectively attenuates heat pain and A delta fiber-mediated laser-evoked potentials. Pain 65: 189–196PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    Boivie J, Leijon G, Johansson I (1989) Central post-stroke pain — a study of the mechanisms through analyses of the sensory abnormalities. Pain 37: 173–185PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Bouhassira D, Le Bars D, Bolgert F, Laplane D, Willer JC (1993) Diffuse noxious inhibitory controls in humans: a neurophysiological investigation of a patient with a form of Brown-Sequard syndrome. Ann Neurol 34: 536–543PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Boulu P, De Broucker T, Maitre P, Meunier S, Willer JC (1985) Somatosensory evoked potential and pain. I. Late cortical responses obtained at different levels of stimulation. Rev Electroenceph Neurophysiol Clin 15: 19–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Boureau F, Willer JC, Albe-Fessard D (1978) Role played in man by myelinated fibers of different diameters for the evocation of a nociceptive flex reflex and the accompanying pain sensation. CR Acad Sci Hebd Seances Acad Sci D 16: 1375–1378Google Scholar
  13. 13.
    Boureau F, Willer JC, Dehen H (1977) The action of acupuncture on pain. Physiological basis. Nouv Presse Med 6: 1871–1874PubMedGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Boureau F, Sebille A, Willer JC et al. (1978) Effects of percutaneous heterosegmental electric stimulation (electroacupuncture) on the nociceptive flexion reflex in man. Ann Anesthesiol Fr 19: 422–426PubMedGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Bowsher D (1996) Central pain: clinical and physiological characteristics. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 61: 62–69PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Bragard D, Chen ACN, Plaghki L (1996) Direct isolation of ultra-late (C-fibre) evoked brain potentials by CO2 laser stimulation of tiny cutaneous surface areas in man. Neurosci Lett 209: 81–84PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Bromm B, Frieling A, Lankers J (1991) Laser-evoked brain potentials in patients with dissociated loss of pain and temperature sensibility. Electroenceph Clin Neurophysiol 80: 284–291PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Bromm B, Treede RD (1984) Nerve fibers discharges, cerebral potentials and sensations induced by CO2 laser stimulation. Hum Neurobiol 3: 33–40PubMedGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Bromm B, Treede RD (1987) Pain related cerebral potentials: late and ultralate components. Int J Neurosci 33: 15–23PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Buchsbaum MS, Davis GC (1979) Application of somatosensory event-related potentials to experimental pain and the pharmacology of analgesia. In: Lehmann D, Callaway E (eds) Human Evoked Potentials. Plenum Press, New York, pp 43–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Buchsbaum MS, Davis GC, Goodwin FK et al. (1980) Psychophysical pain judgments and somatosensory evoked potentials in patients with affective illness and in normal adults. Adv Biol Psychiatry 4: 63–72Google Scholar
  22. 22.
    Buckner RL (1998) Event-related fMRI and the hemodynamic response. Hum Brain Map 6: 373–377CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Carmichael ST, Price JL (1995) Limbic connections of the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex in macaque monkeys. J Comp Neurol 363(4): 615–641PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Carmon A, Dotan Y, Sarne Y (1978) Correlation of subjective pain experience with cerebral evoked responses to noxious thermal stimulations. Exp Brain Res 33: 445–453PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Carroll D, Joint C, Maartens N et al. (2000) Motor cortex stimulation for chronic neuropathic pain: a preliminary study of 10 cases. Pain 84: 431–437PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Casey KL, Beydoun A, Boivie J et al. (1996) Laser-evoked cerebral potentials and sensory function in patients with central pain. Pain 64: 485–491PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Chan CW, Tsang H (1987) Inhibition of the human flexion reflex by low intensity, high frequency transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) has a gradual onset and offset. Pain 28: 239–253PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Chapman CR, Colpitts YM, Benedeti C et al. (1980) Evoked potential assessment of acupunctural analgesia: attempted reversal with naloxone. Pain 9: 183–197PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Chatrian GE, Canfield RC, Knauss TA, Eegt EL (1975) Cerebral responses to electrical tooth pulp stimulation in man. An objective correlate of acute experimental pain. Neurology 25: 745–757PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Cheing GL, Hui-Chan CW (1999) Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation: nonparallel antinociceptive effects on chronic clinical pain and acute experimental pain. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 80: 305–312PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Chen ACN, Chapman CR (1980) Aspirin analgesia evaluated by even-related potentials in man: possible central action in brain. Exp Brain Res 39: 359–364PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Coghill RC, Sang CN, Maisog JM, Iadarola MJ (1999) Pain intensity processing within the human brain: a bilateral, distributed mechanism. J Neurophysiol 82: 1934–1943PubMedGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Cole JD, Merton WL, Barrett G, Katifi HA, Treede R-D (1995) Evoked potentials in a subject with a large-fiber sensory neuropathy below the neck. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 73: 234–245PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Coull JT, Nobre AC (1998) Where and when to pay attention: the neural systems for directing attention to spatial locations and to time intervals as revealed by both PET and fMRI. J Neurosci 18: 7426–7435PubMedGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Cruccu G, Fornarelli M, Inghilleri M, Manfredi M (1983) The limits of tooth pulp evoked potentials for pain quantitation. Physiol Behav 31: 339–342PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Cruccu G, Iannetti GD, Agostino R et al. (2000) Conduction velocity of the human spinothalamic tract as assessed by laser evoked potentials. Neuroreport 11: 3029–3032PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Cruccu G, Leandri M, Iannetti GD et al. (2001) Small-fiber dysfunction in trigeminal neuralgia: carbamazepine effect on laser-evoked potentials. Neurology 56: 1722–1726PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    Cruccu G, García-Larrea L (2004) Clinical utility of laser-evoked potentials. In: Hallett M, Phillips LH, Schomer DL, Massey JM (eds) Advances in evoked potentials. Clinical Neurophysiology Supplement, Vol. 57. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Chap. 12Google Scholar
  39. 39.
    De Broucker T, Cesaro P, Willer JC, Le Bars D (1990) Diffuse noxious inhibitory controls in man. Involvement of the spinoreticular tract. Brain 113: 1223–1234PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Dellemijn PLI, Vanneste JAL (1997) Randomised double blind active-placebo-controlled crossover trial of intravenous fentanyl in neuropathic pain. Lancet 340: 753–758CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Dellemijn PLI, VanDuijn H, Vanneste JAL (1998) Prolonged treatment with transderma1 fentanyl in neuropathic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 16: 220–229PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Derbyshire SW, Jones AK, Collins M et al. (1999) Cerebral responses to pain in patients suffering acute postdental extraction pain measured by positron emission tomography (PET). Eur J Pain 3: 103–113PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. 43.
    Devor M, Carmon A, Frostig R (1982) Primary afferent and spinal neurons that respond to brief pulses of intense infrared laser radiation: a preliminary survey in rats. Exp Neurol 76: 483–494PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Dias RJ, Souza L, Morais WF, Carneiro AP (2004) SEP diagnosing neuropathy of the lateral cutaneous branch of the iliohypogastric nerve: case report. Arq Neuropsiquiatry 62: 895–898CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Di Piero V, Jones AK, Iannotti F et al. (1991) Chronic pain: a PET study of the central effects of percutaneous high cervical cordotomy. Pain 46: 9–12PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Dostrovsky JO, Hutchison WD, Davis KD, Lozano A (1995) Potential role of orbital and cingulate cortices in nociception. In: Besson JM, Guilbaud G, Ollat H (eds) Forebrain areas involved in pain processing. John Libbey Eurotext, Paris, pp 171–181Google Scholar
  47. 47.
    Duncan G, Kupers RC, Marchand S et al. (1998) Stimulation of human thalamus for pain relief: possible modulatory circuits revealed by positron emission tomography. J Neurophysiol 80: 3326–3330PubMedGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Ertekin C, Ertekin N, Karcioglu M (1975) Conduction velocity along human nociceptive reflex afferent nerve fibers. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 38: 959–965PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Esteban A, Traba A (1990) Post-radiation brachial plexus disease. Clinical and neurophysiological study. Arch Neurobiol (Madr) 53: 23–32Google Scholar
  50. 50.
    Facchinetti F, Sandrini G, Petraglia F et al. (1984) Concomitant increase in nociceptive flexion reflex threshold and plasma opioids following transcutaneous nerve stimulation. Pain 19: 295–303PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Fernandes de Lima VM, Chatrian GE, Lettich E et al. (1982) Electrical stimulation of tooth pulp in humans. I. Relationship among physical stimulus intensities, psychological magnitude estimates and cerebral evoked potentials. Pain 14: 207–232Google Scholar
  52. 52.
    Firestone LL, Gyulai F, Mintun M et al. (1996) Human brain activity response to fentanyl imaged by positron emission tomography. Anesth Analg 82: 1247–1251PubMedGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    García-Larrea L, Charles N, Sindou M, Mauguière F (1993) Flexion reflexes following anterolateral cordotomy in man: dissociation between pain sensation and nociceptive reflex RIII. Pain 55: 139–149PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    García-Larrea L, Convers P, Magnin M et al. (2002) Laser-evoked potential abnormalities in central pain patients: the influence of spontaneous and provoked pain. Brain 125: 2766–2781PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    García-Larrea L, Mauguière F (1990) Electrophysiological assessment of nociception in normals and patients: the use of nociceptive reflexes. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol (Suppl) 41: 102–118Google Scholar
  56. 56.
    García-Larrea L, Mauguière F (1990) Short-latency somatosensory evoked potentials. In: Colon E, Visser SL (eds) Evoked potential manual. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, pp 221–278CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    García-Larrea L, Peyron R, Laurent B, Mauguière F (1997) Association and dissociation between laser-evoked potentials and pain perception. Neuroreport 8: 3785–3789PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    García-Larrea L, Peyron R, Mertens P et al. (1999) Electrical stimulation of motor cortex for pain control: a combined PET scan and electrophysiological study. Pain 83: 259–273PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    García-Larrea L, Peyron R, Mertens P et al. (2000) Functional imaging and neurophysiological assessment of spinal and brain therapeutic modulation in humans. Arch Med Res 31: 248–257PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    García-Larrea L, Sindou M, Mauguière F (1989) Clinical use of nociception flexion reflex recording in the evaluation of functional neurosurgical procedures. Acta Neurochir (Suppl) 46: 53–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    García-Larrea L, Sindou M, Mauguière F (1989) Nociceptive flexion reflexes during analgesic neurostimulation in man. Pain 39: 145–156PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Graff-Radford NR, Damasio H, Yamada T et al. (1985) Nonhaemorrhagic thalamic infarction. Clinical, neuropsychological and electrophysiological findings in four anatomical groups defined by computerized tomography. Brain 108: 485–516PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Hansen C, Treede RD, Lorenz J et al. (1996) Recovery from brainstem lesions involving the nociceptive pathways: comparison of clinical findings with laser-evoked potentials. J Clin Neurophysiol 13: 330–338PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Harkins SW, Chapman CR (1978) Cerebral evoked potentials to noxious dental stimulation: relationship to subjective pain report. Psychophysiology 15: 248–252PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Hartmann-von Monakow K, Akert K, Künzle H (1979) Projections of precentral and premotor cortex to the red nucleus and other midbrain areas in macaca fascicularis. Exp Brain Res 34: 91–105Google Scholar
  66. 66.
    Hautvast RWM, Terhorst GJ, Dejong BM et al. (1997) Relative changes in regional cerebral blood flow during spinal cord stimulation in patients with refractory angina pectoris. Eur J Neurosci 9: 1178–1183PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Hsieh JC, Belfrage M, Stone-Elander S, Hansson P, Ingvar M (1995) Central representation of chronic ongoing neuropathic pain studied by positron emission tomography. Pain 63: 225–236PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Hugon M (1973) Exteroceptive reflexes to stimulation of the sural nerve in normal man. In: Desmedt JE (ed) New developments in electromyography and clinical neurophysiology, Vol. III. Karger, Basel, pp 713–729Google Scholar
  69. 69.
    Iadarola MJ, Berman KF, Zeffiro TA et al. (1998) Neural activation during acute capsaicin-evoked pain and allodynia assessed with PET. Brain 121: 931–947PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Iadarola MJ, Max MB, Berman KF et al. (1995) Unilateral decrease in thalamic activity observed with positron emission tomography in patients with chronic neuropathic pain. Pain 63: 55–64PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Iannetti GD, Truini A, Romaniello A et al. (2003) Evidence of a specific spinal pathway for the sense of warmth in humans. J Neurophysiol 89: 562–570PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. 72.
    Iriki A, Tanaka M, Iwamura Y (1996) Attention-induced neuronal activity in the monkey somatosensory cortex revealed by pupillometrics. Neurosci Res 25: 173–181PubMedGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    Itskovich VV, Fei DY, Harkins SW (2000) Psychophysiological and psychophysical responses to experimental pain induced by two types of cutaneous thermal stimuli. Intl J Neurosci 105: 63–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    Jeanmonod D, Magnin M, Morel A (1993) Thalamus and neurogenic pain: physiological, anatomical and clinical data. Neuroreport 4(5): 475–478PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Jones AKP, Cunningham VJ, Ha-Kawa S et al. (1994) Changes in central opioid receptor binding in relation to inflammation and pain in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Br J Rheumatol 33(10): 909–916PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Jones AKP, Derbyshire SW (1997) Reduced cortical responses to noxious heat in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 56: 601–607PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Jones AKP, Watabe H, Cunningham VJ et al. (2004) Cerebral decreases in opioid receptor binding in patients with central neuropathic pain measured by [11C]diprenorphine binding and PET. Eur J Pain 8: 479–485PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Kakigi R, Kuroda Y, Neshige R et al. (1992) Physiological study of the spinothalamic tract conduction in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Sci 107: 205–209PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Kakigi R, Kuroda Y, Takashima H et al. (1992) Physiological functions of the ascending spinal tracts in HTLV-I-associated myelopathy (HAM). Electroenceph Clin Neurophysiol 84: 110–114PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Kakigi R, Shibasaki H, Ikeda A et al. (1992) Pain-related somatosensory evoked potentials following CO2 laser stimulation in peripheral neuropathies. Acta Neurol Scand 85: 347–352PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    Kakigi R, Shibasaki H, Kuroda Yet al. (1991) Pain-related somatosensory evoked potentials in syringomyelia. Brain 114: 1871–1889PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Kakigi R, Shibasaki H, Tanaka K et al. (1991) CO2 laser-induced pain-related somatosensory evoked potentials in peripheral neuropathies: correlation between electrophysiological and histopathological findings. Muscle Nerve 14: 441–450PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. 83.
    Kanda M, Mima T, Xu X et al. (1996) Pain-related somatosensory evoked potentials can quantitatively evaluate hypalgesia in Wallenberg’s syndrome. Acta Neurol Scand 94: 131–136PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. 84.
    Landau W, Bishop GH (1953) Pain from dermal, periosteal and fascial endings and from inflammation: electrophysiological study employing different nerve blocks. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 69: 490–504CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    Lefaucheur JP, Brusa A, Creange A et al. (2002) Clinical application of laser evoked potentials using the Nd:YAG laser. Neurophysiol Clin 32: 91–98PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Legrain V, Guérit JM, Bruyer R, Plaghki L (2002) Attentional modulation of the nociceptive processing into the human brain: selective spatial attention, probability of stimulus occurrence, and target detection effects on laser evoked potentials. Pain 99: 21–39PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Levinsson A, Garwicz M, Schouenborg J (1999) Sensorimotor transformation in cat nociceptive withdrawal reflex system. Eur J Neurosci 11: 4327–4332PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. 88.
    Lorenz J, Hansen HC, Kunze K, Bromm B (1996) Sensory deficits of a nerve root lesion can be objectively documented by somatosensory evoked potentials elicited by painful infrared laser stimulations. A case study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 61: 107–110PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Lorenz J, García-Larrea L (2003) Contribution of attentional and cognitive factors to laser-evoked potentials (LEPs). Neurophysiol Clin 33: 293–301PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. 90.
    Maarrawi J, Peyron R, García-Larrea L (2006) Brain opioid receptor availability differs in central and peripheral neuropathic pain. In: Flor H, Kalso E, Dotrovsky J (eds) Proc 11th World Congress on Pain. IASP Press, Seattle, pp 407–414Google Scholar
  91. 91.
    Maarrawi J, Peyron R, Mertens P et al. (2007) Differential brain opioid receptor availability in central and peripheral neuropathic pain. Pain 127: 183–194PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Maarrawi J, Peyron R, Mertens P et al. (2007) Motor cortex stimulation for pain control induces changes in the endogenous opioid system. Neurology 69(9): 827–834PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. 93.
    MacGowan DJL, Janal MN, Clark MC et al. (1997) Central poststroke pain and Wallenberg’s lateral medullary infarction: frequency, character, and determinants in 63 patients. Neurology 49: 120–125PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. 94.
    Magerl W, Ali Z, Ellrich J et al. (1999) C- and Aδ-fiber components of heat-evoked cerebral potentials in healthy human subjects. Pain 82: 127–137PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Manfredi M (1970) Differential block of conduction of larger fibers in peripheral nerve by direct current. Arch Ital Biol 108: 52–71PubMedGoogle Scholar
  96. 96.
    Mauguière F, Desmedt JE (1988) Thalamic pain syndrome of Dejerine-Roussy. Differentiation of four subtypes assisted by somatosensory evoked potentials data. Arch Neurol 45: 1312–1320PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. 97.
    Mauguière F, Merlet I, Forss N et al. (1997) Activation of a distributed somatosensory cortical network in the human brain. A dipole modelling study of magnetic fields evoked by median nerve stimulation. Part I: Location and activation timing of SEF sources. Electroenceph Clin Neurophysiol 10: 281–289Google Scholar
  98. 98.
    Mendell JR, Sahenk Z (2003) Clinical practice. Painful sensory neuropathy. N Engl J Med 348(13): 1243–1255PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. 99.
    Mertens P, Nuti C, Sindou M et al. (1999) Precentral cortex stimulation for the treatment of central neuropathic pain: results of a prospective study in a 20-patient series. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 73(1–4): 122–125PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  100. 100.
    Montes C, Magnin M, Maarrawi J et al. (2005) Thalamic ventral posterior infarct with central pain. Changes in spino-thalamic and lemniscal-related responses and the role of VPL and VMpo in thalamic pain. Pain 113: 223–232PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. 101.
    Mouraux A, Guérit JM, Plaghki L (2004) Refractoriness cannot explain why C-fiber laser-evoked brain potentials are recorded only if concomitant Adelta-fiber activation is avoided. Pain 112(1–2): 16–26PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. 102.
    Nguyen JP, Lefaucher JP, Le Guerinel C et al. (2000) Motor cortex stimulation in the treatment of central and neuropathic pain. Arch Med Res 31(3): 263–265PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  103. 103.
    Opsommer E, Guérit JM, Plaghki L (2003) Exogenous and endogenous components of ultralate (C-fiber) evoked potentials following CO2 laser stimuli to tiny skin surface areas in healthy subjects. Neurophysiol Clin 33: 78–85PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. 104.
    Petersson P, Waldenstrom A, Fahraeus C, Schouenborg J (2003) Spontaneous muscle twitches during sleep guide spinal self organization. Nature 424: 72–75PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. 105.
    Peyron R, Faillenot I, Mertens P et al. (2007) Motor cortex stimulation in neuropathic pain. Correlations between analgesic effect and hemodynamic changes in the brain. A PET study. Neuroimage 34(1): 310–321PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  106. 106.
    Peyron R, García-Larrea L, Deiber MP et al. (1995) Electrical stimulation of precentral cortical area in the treatment of central pain. Electrophysiological and PET study. Pain 62: 275–286PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  107. 107.
    Peyron R, García-Larrea L, Grégoire MC et al. (1996) Positron Emission Tomography (PET) evidence of Cerebral Blood Flow (CBF) abnormalities in patients with neurological pain after lateral-medullary infarct (Wallenberg’s syndrome WS). VIIIth World Congress on Pain, IASP, Vancouver [abstract].Google Scholar
  108. 108.
    Peyron R, García-Larrea L, Grégoire MC et al. (1998) Allodynia after lateral-medullary (Wallenberg) infarct. A Positron Emission Tomography (PET) study. Brain 121: 345–356PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  109. 109.
    Peyron R, García-Larrea L, Grégoire MC et al. (1999) Haemodynamic brain responses to acute pain in humans: sensory and attentional networks. Brain 122: 1765–1780PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  110. 110.
    Plaghki L (1998) Complex regional pain syndrome and A-delta impairment. Sever Algia 55: 1Google Scholar
  111. 111.
    Ploner M, Schmitz F, Freund HJ, Schnitzler A (1999) Parallel activation of primary and secondary somatosensory cortices in human pain processing. J Neurophysiol 81: 3100–3104PubMedGoogle Scholar
  112. 112.
    Prestor B, Golob P (1999) Intra-operative spinal cord neuromonitoring in patients operated on for intramedullary tumors and syringomyelia. Neurol Res 21: 125–129PubMedGoogle Scholar
  113. 113.
    Quante M, Lampe F, Hauck M et al. (2003) Laser-evoked potentials: diagnostic approach to the dorsal root. Orthopäde 32: 852–858PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  114. 114.
    Ragazzoni A, Amantini A, Lombardi M et al. (1993) Electric and CO2 laser SEPs in a patient with asymptomatic syringomyelia. Electroenceph Clin Neurophysiol 88: 335–338PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  115. 115.
    Rage M, Plaghki L (2003) Neurophysiological exploration of the chest wall by CO2-laser-evoked potentials. In: Proc 4th Congress Europ Fed IASP Chapters, Prague, p 472Google Scholar
  116. 116.
    Rainville P, Duncan GH, Price DD et al. (1997) Pain affect encoded in human anterior cingulate but not somatosensory cortex. Science 277: 968–971PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  117. 117.
    Rees G, Howseman A, Josephs O et al. (1997) Characterizing the relationship between BOLD contrast and regional cerebral blood flow measurements by varying the stimulus presentation rate. Neuroimage 6: 270–278PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  118. 118.
    Restuccia D, Di Lazzaro V, Valeriani M et al. (1992) Segmental dysfunction of the cervical cord revealed by abnormalities of the spinal N13 potential in cervical spondylotic myelopathy. Neurology 42: 1054–1063PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  119. 119.
    Restuccia D, Di Lazzaro V, Valeriani M et al. (1996) Spinal responses to median and fibial nerve stimulation and magnetic resonance imaging in intramedullary cord lesions. Neurology 46: 1706–1714PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  120. 120.
    Roby A, Bussel B, Willer JC (1981) Morphine reinforces post-discharge inhibition of alpha-motoneurons in man. Brain Res 222: 209–212PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  121. 121.
    Roby-Brami A, Bussel B, Willer JC, Le Bars D (1987) An electrophysiological investigation into the pain-relieving effects of heterotopic nociceptive stimuli. Probable involvement of a supraspinal loop. Brain 110: 1497–1508PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  122. 122.
    Romaniello A, Cruccu G, Frisardi G, Arendt-Nielsen L, Svensson P (2003) Assessment of nociceptive trigeminal pathways by laser-evoked potentials and laser silent periods in patients with painful temporomandibular disorders. Pain 103: 31–39PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  123. 123.
    Romaniello A, Iannetti GD, Truini A, Cruccu G (2003) Trigeminal responses to laser stimuli. Neurophysiol Clin 33: 315–324PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  124. 124.
    Rosen SD, Paulesu E, Frith CD et al. (1994) Central nervous pathways mediating angina pectoris. Lancet 344: 147–150PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  125. 125.
    Rosen BR, Buckner RL, Dale AM (1998) Event-related functional MRI: past, present, and future. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95: 773–780PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  126. 126.
    Rossi A, Decchi B (1994) Flexibility of lower limb reflex responses to painful cutaneous stimulation in standing humans: evidence of load-dependent modulation. J Physiol 481: 521–532PubMedGoogle Scholar
  127. 127.
    Rossi A, Zalaffi A, Decchi B (1996) Interaction of nociceptive and non-nociceptive cutaneous afferents from foot sole in common reflex pathways to tibialis anterior motoneurones in humans. Brain Res 714: 76–86PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  128. 128.
    Rousseaux M, Cassim F, Bayle B, Laureau E (1999) Analysis of the perception of and reactivity to pain and heat in patients with Wallenberg syndrome and severe spinothalamic tract dysfunction. Stroke 30: 2223–2229PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  129. 129.
    Rowbotham MC, Reisner-Keller LA, Fields HL (1991) Both intravenous lidocaine and morphine reduce the pain of postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology 41(7): 1024–1028PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  130. 130.
    Rowbotham MC, Twilling L, Davies PS et al. (2003) Oral opioid therapy for chronic peripheral and central neuropathic pain. N Engl J Med 348(13): 1223–1232PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  131. 131.
    Sadato N, Yonekura Y, Yamada H et al. (1998) Activation patterns of covert word generation detected by fMRI: comparison with 3D PET. J Comput Assist Tomogr 22: 945–952PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  132. 132.
    Sandrini G, Arrigo A, Bono G, Nappi G (1993) The nociceptive flexion reflex as a tool for exploring pain control systems in headache and other pain syndromes. Cephalalgia 13: 21–27PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  133. 133.
    Sandrini G, Serrao M, Rossi P et al. (2005) The lower limb flexion reflex in humans. Prog Neurobiol 77(6): 353–395PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  134. 134.
    Santiago S, Ferrer T, Espinosa ML (2000) Neurophysiological studies of thin myelinated (A delta) and unmyelinated (C) fibers: application to peripheral neuropathies. Neurophysiol Clin 30: 27–42PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  135. 135.
    Schlereth T, Baumgärtner U, Magerl W et al. (2003) Left hemisphere dominance in early nociceptive processing in the human parasylvian cortex. Neuroimage 20: 437–450CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  136. 136.
    Senapati AK, Huntington PJ, LaGraize SC et al. (2005) Electrical stimulation of the primary somatosensory cortex inhibits spinal dorsal horn neuron activity. Brain Res 1057: 134–140PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  137. 137.
    Serra J, Campero M, Bostock H, Ochoa J (2004) Two types of C nociceptors in human skin and their behavior in areas of capsaicin-induced secondary hyperalgesia. J Neurophysiol 91: 2770–2781PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  138. 138.
    Sikes RW, Vogt BA (1992) Nociceptive neurons in area 24 of rabbit cingulate cortex. J Neurophysiol 68: 1720–1732PubMedGoogle Scholar
  139. 139.
    Sindou M, Quoex C, Baleydier C (1974) Fiber organization at the posterior spinal cord-rootlet junction in man. J Comp Neurol 153: 15–26PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  140. 140.
    Sindou M, Mertens P, Bendavid U et al. (2003) Predictive value of somatosensory evoked potentials for long-lasting pain relief after spinal cord stimulation: practical use for patient selection. Neurosurgery 52: 1374–1383PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  141. 141.
    Sokoloff L, Reivich M, Kennedy C et al. (1977) The [14C]deoxyglucose method for the measurement of local cerebral glucose utilization: theory, procedure and normal values in the conscious and anesthetized albino rat. J Neurochem 28: 897–916PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  142. 142.
    Sokoloff L, Porter A, Roland P et al. (1991) General discussion. In: Chadwick C, Derek J, Whelan J (eds) Exploring brain functional anatomy with positron emission tomography. Ciba Foundation Symposium 163. Wiley & Sons, London, pp 43–56Google Scholar
  143. 143.
    Spiegel J, Hansen C, Baumgärtner U et al. (2003) Sensitivity of laser-evoked potentials versus somatosensory evoked potentials in patients with multiple sclerosis. Clin Neurophysiol 114: 992–1002PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  144. 144.
    Synek VM (1986) Diagnostic importance of somatosensory evoked potentials in the diagnosis of thoracic outlet syndrome. Clin Electroenceph 17: 112–116Google Scholar
  145. 145.
    Synek VM (1987) Short latency somatosensory evoked potentials in patients with painful dysaesthesias in peripheral nerve lesions. Pain 29: 49–58PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  146. 146.
    Talbot JD, Marrett S, Evans AC, Meyer E, Bushnell MC, Duncan GH (1991) Multiple representations of pain in human cerebral cortex. Science 251: 1355–1358PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  147. 147.
    Tarkka IM, Treede RD (1993) Equivalent electrical source analysis of pain-related somatosensory evoked potentials elicited by a CO2-laser. J Clin Neurophysiol 10: 513–519PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  148. 148.
    Tasker RR (1990) Thalamotomy. Neurosurg Clin N Am 1(4): 841–864PubMedGoogle Scholar
  149. 149.
    Timmermann L, Ploner M, Haucke K et al. (2001) Differential coding of pain intensity in the human primary and secondary somatosensory cortex. J Neurophysiol 86: 1499–1503PubMedGoogle Scholar
  150. 150.
    Tölle TR, Kaufmann T, Siessmeier T et al. (1 999) Region-specific encoding of sensory and affective components of pain in the human brain: a positron emission tomography correlation analysis. Ann Neurol 45: 40–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  151. 151.
    Towell AD, Purves AM, Boyd SG (1996) CO2 laser activation of nociceptive and nonnociceptive thermal afferents from hairy and glabrous skin. Pain 66: 79–86PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  152. 152.
    Tran TD, Inui K, Hoshiyama M et al. (2002) Cerebral activation by the signals ascending through unmyelinated C-fibers in humans: a magnetoencephalographic study. Neuroscience 113: 375–386PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  153. 153.
    Treede RD, Lankers J, Frieling A et al. (1991) Cerebral potentials evoked by painful, laser stimuli in patients with syringomyelia. Brain 114: 1595–1607PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  154. 154.
    Treede RD, Lorenz J, Baumgärtner U (2003) Clinical usefulness of laser-evoked potentials. Neurophysiol Clin 33: 293–302CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  155. 155.
    Treede RD, Lorenz J, Kunze K, Bromm B (1995) Assessment of nociception pathways with laser-evoked potentials in normal subjects and patients. In: Bromm B, Desmedt JE (eds) Pain and the Brain Series: Advances in Pain Research and Therapy 22. Raven Press, New York, pp 377–392Google Scholar
  156. 156.
    Treede RD, Meier W, Kunze K, Bromm B (1988) Ultralate cerebral potentials as correlates of delayed pain perception: observation in a case of neurosyphilis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 51(10): 1330–1333PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  157. 157.
    Treede RD, Meyer RA, Raja SN, Campbell JN (1995) Evidence for two different heat transduction mechanisms in nociceptive primary afferents innervating monkey skin. J Physiol 483: 747–758PubMedGoogle Scholar
  158. 158.
    Truini A, Cruccu G, García-Larrea L (2003) Painful sensory neuropathy. N Engl J Med 349: 306–307PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  159. 159.
    Truini A, Haanpaa M, Zucchi R et al. (2003) Laser-evoked potentials in post-herpetic neuralgia. Clin Neurophysiol 114: 702–709PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  160. 160.
    Truini A, Rossi P, Galeotti F, Romaniello A, Virtuoso M, De Lena C, Leandri M, Cruccu G (2004) Excitability of the A-delta nociceptive pathways as assessed by the recovery cycle of laser evoked potentials in humans. Exp Brain Res 155: 120–123PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  161. 161.
    Tsubokawa T, Katayama Y, Yamamoto T et al. (1991) Chronic motor cortex stimulation for the treatment of central pain. Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wien) 52: 137–139CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  162. 162.
    Turner R (1992) Magnetic resonance imaging of brain function. Am J Physiol Imaging 7: 136–145PubMedGoogle Scholar
  163. 163.
    Urban PP, Hansen C, Baumgärtner U et al. (1999) Abolished laser-evoked potentials and normal blink reflex in midlateral medullary infarction. J Neurol 246: 347–352PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  164. 164.
    Valeriani M, Restuccia D, Di Lazzaro V et al. (1999) Inhibition of the human primary motor area by painful heat stimulation of the skin. Clin Neurophysiol 110: 1475–1880PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  165. 165.
    Valeriani M, Restuccia D, Le Pera D et al. (2002) Attention-related modifications of ultralate CO(2) laser evoked potentials to human trigeminal nerve stimulation. Neurosci Lett 329: 329–333PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  166. 166.
    Vestergaard K, Nielsen J, Andersen G et al. (1995) Sensory abnormalities in consecutive, unselected patients with central poststroke pain. Pain 61: 177–186PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  167. 167.
    Villanueva L, Le Bars D (1995) The activation of bulbo-spinal controls by peripheral nociceptive inputs: diffuse noxious inhibitory controls. Biol Res 28: 113–125PubMedGoogle Scholar
  168. 168.
    Willer JC, Boureau F, Albe-Fessard D (1977) Role of large diameter cutaneous afferents in transmission of nociceptive messages: electrophysiological study in man. Brain Res 152: 358–364CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  169. 169.
    Willer JC, Bussel B (1980) Evidence for a direct spinal mechanism in morphine-induced inhibition of nociceptive reflexes in humans. Brain Res 187: 212–215PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  170. 170.
    Willer JC, Dehen H, Cambier J (1986) Study of pain thresholds by recording flexor reflexes in thalamic syndromes. Rev Neurol (Paris) 142: 303–307Google Scholar
  171. 171.
    Willer JC, Roby A, Le Bars D (1984) Psychophysical and electrophysiological approaches to the pain-relieving effects of heterotopic nociceptive stimuli. Brain 107: 1095–1112PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  172. 172.
    Willer JC (1977) Comparative study of perceived pain and nociceptive flexion reflex in man. Pain 3: 69–80PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  173. 173.
    Willer JC (1983) Nociceptive flexion reflex as a tool for pain research in man. In: Desmedt JE (ed) Advances in Neurology. Raven Press, New York, pp 809–827Google Scholar
  174. 174.
    Willer JC (1990) Clinical exploration of nociception with the use of reflexologic techniques. Neurophysiol Clin 20: 335–356PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  175. 175.
    Willoch F, Tölle TR, Wester HJ et al. (1999) Central pain after pontine infarction is associated with changes in opioid receptor binding: a PET study with 11C-diprenorphine. Am J Neuroradiol 20: 686–690PubMedGoogle Scholar
  176. 176.
    Willoch F, Schindler F, Wester HJ et al. (2004) Central poststroke pain and reduced opioid receptor binding within pain processing circuitries: a [11C]diprenorphine PET study. Pain 108(3): 213–220PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  177. 177.
    Wu Q, García-Larrea L, Mertens P et al. (1999) Hyperalgesia with reduced laser evoked potentials in neuropathic pain. Pain 80: 209–214PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  178. 178.
    Yamamoto M, Kachi T, Igata A (1995) Pain-related and electrically stimulated somatosensory evoked potentials in patients with stroke. Stroke 26: 426–429PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  179. 179.
    Yamamoto M, Kachi T, Yamada T, Nagamatsu M, Sobue G (1997) Sensory conduction study of cisplatin neuropathy: preservation of small myelinated fibers. Intern Med 36: 829–833PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  180. 180.
    Zimmermann M (1968) Dorsal root potentials after C-fiber stimulation. Science 160: 896–898PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer-Verlag=Wien 2011

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.(Faculty of Medicine) and Hôtel-Dieu de France Hospital (Department of Neurosurgery)St Joseph UniversityBeirutLebanon
  2. 2.(Central Integration of Pain)INSERM U 879Lyon and St-EtienneFrance
  3. 3.Functional Neurosurgery DepartmentHôpital Neurologique, HCLLyonFrance
  4. 4.Neurology DepartmentHôpital BellevueSt-EtienneFrance

Personalised recommendations

Cite chapter

Buy options