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Which Rights Do Have the Astronauts?

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Der Schutz des Individuums durch das Recht

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Abstract

For decades, outer space was a specific place of international cooperation, understanding and compromise. The elaboration and adoption of the five UN space treaties in the era of the Cold War was presented by international lawyers as a miracle flowing from common interests and existing ties of the two opposing military blocks in the vast area governed by the “province of mankind” principle. However, the dramatically deteriorated political situation in Europe during the last months and years, especially in its Eastern part, has demonstrated that our belief in the rationalism of international relations was in the best case naïve. This development did not leave space cooperation untouched: The end of the epoque of easy launching of satellites from Baikonur, of starts of Soyuz rockets from the ESA launchpad in French Guiana, and the politicized reduction of the Russian participation in the International Space Station show the poisoned atmosphere also in this area.

Prof. Dr. Mahulena Hofmann, CSc. SES Chair in Space, SatCom and Media Law, University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 1967, UNTS, vol. 610, No. 8843 (OST), Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, 1968, UNTS, vol. 672, No. 9574 (ARRA), 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, 1972, UNTS, vol. 961, No. 13810 (LIAB), Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, UNTS, vol. 1023, No. 15020 (REG), Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 1984, UNTS, vol. 1363, No. 23003 (MA).

  2. 2.

    Article I OST, Article 4 MA.

  3. 3.

    Article II OST, Article 3 MA.

  4. 4.

    Article V OST.

  5. 5.

    On 23.11.2022, the European Space Agency presented the “new generation of astronauts”, see https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/ESA_presents_new_generation_of_astronauts, accessed 30.11.2022.

  6. 6.

    Capotorti (1979).

  7. 7.

    Young (2021).

  8. 8.

    “Cosmonaut” in Russian and “Taikonaut” in Chinese.

  9. 9.

    Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, UNTS, vol. 672, No. 9574, 1967.

  10. 10.

    Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Legal Subcommittee (2022) Status of International Agreements relating to Activities in Outer Apace as at 1 January 2022, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/2022/CRP.10, 28 March 2022.

  11. 11.

    Morozova (2022).

  12. 12.

    Lyall (2009), p. 1617.

  13. 13.

    Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, UNTS, vol. 1363, No. 23002.

  14. 14.

    Jakhu (2009), p. 386.

  15. 15.

    Marboe et al. (2013), p. 42.

  16. 16.

    Commercial Space Launch Activities, 49 USC 701, as revised by the Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act 2004, Public Law 108-492, 23.12.2004.

  17. 17.

    40 USC 70102 para. 17, confirmed by 51 US Code, Chapter 509, Commercial Space Launch Activities.

  18. 18.

    Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Space Activities, 06.01.2012, No 528-IV, Article 1, para. 19.

  19. 19.

    Artemis Accords – Principles for Cooperation in the Civil Exploration and Use of the Moon, Mars, Comets, and Asteroids for Peaceful Purposes, https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/img/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf, accessed 30.11.2022.

  20. 20.

    Outer Space Act, Act no. 409 of 11.05.2016.

  21. 21.

    Federal Law No. 12 on the Regulation of the Space Sector, 19.12.2019.

  22. 22.

    Švamberk (2021).

  23. 23.

    FAI Sporting Code, Section 8 – Astronautics, 2009 Edition, Section 8, para. 2.18.1.

  24. 24.

    Radio Regulations, Edition 2022, Section IV.

  25. 25.

    Article 1 of the Moon Agreement.

  26. 26.

    See Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Legal Subcommittee (2022) Status of International Agreements relating to Activities in Outer Apace as at 1 January 2022, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/2022/CRP.10, 28 March 2022.

  27. 27.

    Schmidt-Tedd and Mick (2009), p. 157.

  28. 28.

    Vereshchetin (2006), para. 7.

  29. 29.

    Askin (2019), para. 4.

  30. 30.

    Kamminga (2020), para. 1.

  31. 31.

    Steinorth (2021), para. 9.

  32. 32.

    Compare, Askin (2019), para. 4.

  33. 33.

    See i.a. the Registry of objects launched into outer space maintained online by the Ministry of Transport of the Czech Republic, https://www.spaceportal.cz.

  34. 34.

    Hofmann and Loukakis (2017), p. 18.

  35. 35.

    BGBl. II 2445.

  36. 36.

    Vereshchetin (2006), para. 9.

  37. 37.

    14, CRF § 1214.403 (2006), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2022-title14-vol5/pdf/CFR-2022-title14-vol5-sec1214-403.pdf, accessed 30.11.2022.

  38. 38.

    Schmidt-Tedd and Mick (2009), p. 159.

  39. 39.

    Vereshchetin (1978), p. 545 ff.

  40. 40.

    Similarly Morozova (2022), p. 2.

  41. 41.

    Cheng (1997), p. 457 ff.

  42. 42.

    Dunk and Goh (2009), p. 98.

  43. 43.

    Dunk and Goh (2009), p. 98.

  44. 44.

    See Dunk and Goh (2009), p. 99.

  45. 45.

    Marboe et al. (2009), p. 52. Article 25 reads: “Each Contracting State undertakes to provide such measures of assistance to aircraft in distress in its territory as it may find practicable, and to permit, subject to control by its own authorities, the owners of the aircraft or authorities of the State in which the aircraft is registered provide such measures of assistance as may be necessitated by the circumstances. Each contracting State, when undertaking search for missing aircraft, will collaborate in coordinated measures which may be recommended from time to time pursuant to this Convention.”

  46. 46.

    Marboe et al. (2009), p. 57.

  47. 47.

    Marboe et al. (2009), p. 59.

  48. 48.

    Morozova (2022), p. 2.

  49. 49.

    Dembling and Arons (1968), p. 630-663.

  50. 50.

    Christol (1982), p. 193.

  51. 51.

    Council of Europe, European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, as amended by Protocols Nos. 11 and 14, 04.11.1950, ETS 5.

  52. 52.

    Ribbelink (2009), p. 64.

  53. 53.

    Ribbelink (2009), p. 64.

  54. 54.

    Marboe (2013), p. 135 ff.

  55. 55.

    Schmidt-Tedd and Mick (2009), p. 156.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Luxembourg, Luxembourg

    Mahulena Hofmann

  2. Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic

    Mahulena Hofmann

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  1. Mahulena Hofmann
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Correspondence to Mahulena Hofmann .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Europäische Akademie der Arbeit in der Universität Frankfurt am Main, University of Labour, Frankfurt am Main, Deutschland

    Philipp B. Donath

  2. Goethe Universität Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, Deutschland

    Alexander Heger

  3. Goethe Universität Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, Deutschland

    Moritz Malkmus

  4. Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer PartG mbB, Frankfurt am Main, Deutschland

    Orhan Bayrak

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Hofmann, M. (2023). Which Rights Do Have the Astronauts?. In: Donath, P.B., Heger, A., Malkmus, M., Bayrak, O. (eds) Der Schutz des Individuums durch das Recht. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-66978-5_21

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-66978-5_21

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