Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Smart Mobility, Transport Poverty and the Legal Framework of Inclusive Mobility

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Smart Urban Mobility

Part of the book series: MPI Studies on Intellectual Property and Competition Law ((MSIP,volume 29))

Abstract

Smart mobility aims to provide efficient, sustainable and connected mobility solutions to congested urban centers. It is often assumed that smart mobility will benefit cities’ residents and improve overall accessibility. Nevertheless, smart mobility strategies presuppose that transport users are digitally literate, autonomous and capable of affording either public or private transportation. For the millions of citizens throughout the world who are affected by transport poverty, this is not the case. Transport poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon which is often overlooked in the legal literature. Yet this specific type of poverty can limit individuals’ upward mobility and impede their ability to exercise social and economic rights. This paper explores the phenomenon of transport poverty and delves into the possibility of designing smart mobility policies that address this type of poverty. It discusses existing or proposed policies of free public transit and explains why inclusive mobility should be regarded as a concretization of the right to equal treatment. This paper contributes to the existing scholarship on smart cities, smart mobility and fundamental rights with a novel interdisciplinary analysis of urban mobility. Furthermore, it draws attention to the need to design connected transport systems that are inclusive.

I would like to thank the participants of the Smart Mobility Workshop at the Max Planck Institute for Innovation and Competition for their insightful comments. Sofia Ranchordás is Professor of European and Comparative Public Law, University of Groningen, Faculty of Law, The Netherlands.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. 1.

    Despite the limited scholarship on the topic of transport poverty and smart mobility, there are some exceptions: Sören Groth, ‘Multimodal Divide: Reproduction of Transport Poverty in Smart Mobility Trends’ (2019) 125 Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 56; Aaron Golub and others, ‘Assessing the Barriers to Equity in Smart Mobility Systems: A Case Study of Portland, Oregon’ (2019) 7(4) Case Studies on Transport Policy 689. See also Ke Fang, ‘“Smart Mobility:” Is It Time to Re-think Urban Mobility?’ (Transport for Development/World Bank Blogs, 29 April 2015) <http://blogs.worldbank.org/transport/smart-mobility-it-time-re-think-urban-mobility> accessed 7 January 2020 (drawing attention to the need to ‘enable all people, regardless income or other social status, to better access the urban services they need, while also reducing motorized traffic’).

  2. 2.

    Tan Yigitcanlar and Md Kamruzzaman, ‘Smart Cities and Mobility: Does the Smartness of Australian Cities Lead to Sustainable Commuting Patterns?’ (2019) 26(2) Journal of Urban Technology 21.

  3. 3.

    Diana Andone, Carmen Holotescu and Gabriela Grosseck, ‘Learning Communities in Smart Cities. Case Studies’ (International Conference on Web and Open Access to Learning (ICWOAL), Dubai, 25-27 November 2014) <https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7009244> accessed 7 January 2020.

  4. 4.

    Alan Wiig, ‘The Empty Rhetoric of the Smart City: From Digital Inclusion to Economic Promotion in Philadelphia’ (2016) 37(4) Urban Geography 535. According to the European Commission, 80 million Europeans never use the internet because ‘they don’t have a computer or it is too expensive […] or they find it too difficult’; see European Commission, ‘Digital Inclusion for a Better Society’ (European Commission - Digital Single Market, 19 June 2019) <https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/digital-inclusion-better-eu-society> accessed 1 December 2019.

  5. 5.

    The burden of transport prices on household budgets is difficult to determine, but the World Bank has conducted several studies showing that this burden varied between 8 and 16% of household expenditures in developing countries in Africa and was 15% in certain developed countries (including France); see http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTURBANTRANSPORT/Resources/Chapter3.pdf. In many Latin American cities, such as Lima and Rio de Janeiro, the poor are also being driven to inexpensive dwelling areas up to 40 kilometers away from potential employment areas, increasing the commuting time as much as three hours per day; see Julie Babinard, ‘Is Public Transport Affordable?’(World Bank Blogs, 1 May 2014) <https://blogs.worldbank.org/transport/public-transport-affordable> accessed 18 March 2020.

  6. 6.

    Groth (n 1) 57.

  7. 7.

    Richard Crisp, Edward Ferrari and others, ‘Tackling Transport-related Barriers to Employment in Low-income Neighbourhoods’ (Project Report, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, York 2018) <http://shura.shu.ac.uk/24128/1/tackling_transport-related_barriers_low-income_neighbourhoods.pdf> accessed 18 March 2020.

  8. 8.

    Diego Hernandez, ‘Uneven Mobilities, Uneven Opportunities: Social Distribution of Public Transport Accessibility to Jobs and Education in Montevideo’ (2018) 67 Journal of Transport Geography 119.

  9. 9.

    See in this context the report of the Pathways for Prosperity Commission, ‘The Digital Roadmap: How Developing Countries Can Get Ahead’ (Oxford University 2019) <https://pathwayscommission.bsg.ox.ac.uk/digital-roadmap> accessed 18 March 2020. Energy poverty and fuel poverty have received more attention from other disciplines; see, for example, Kristian Fabri (ed), Urban Fuel Poverty (Academic Press 2019). On social exclusion and mobility, see Noel Cass, Elizabeth Shove and John Urry, ‘Social Exclusion, Mobility and Access’ (2005) 53(3) Sociological Review 539.

  10. 10.

    John Bartlett, ‘Chile Students’ Mass Fare-Dodging Expands into City-Wide Protest’ The Guardian (Santiago, 18 October 2019) <www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/18/chile-students-mass-fare-dodging-expands-into-city-wide-protest> accessed 18 March 2020; Dominique Mignot and others ‘Mobilité et grande pauvreté’ (HAL Archives Ouvertes 2001) <https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00110400/document> accessed 8 January 2020.

  11. 11.

    Nagendra R Velaga and others, ‘Transport Poverty Meets the Digital Divide: Accessibility and Connectivity in Rural Communities’ (2012) 21 Journal of Transport Geography 102.

  12. 12.

    See Rodolfo Benevenuto and Brian Caulfield, ‘Poverty and Transport in the Global South: An Overview’ (2019) 79 Transport Policy 115. Guilio Mattioli, Karen Lucas, and Greg Marsden, ‘Transport Poverty and Fuel Poverty in the UK: From Analogy to Comparison’ (2017) 59 Transport Policy 93.

  13. 13.

    See also Thomas W Sanchez and others, The Right to Transportation: Moving to Equity (Routledge 2008).

  14. 14.

    The leading proponent of Public Interest Technology is Bruce Schneier; see Bruce Schneier, ‘Cybersecurity for the Public Interest’ (2019) 17(1) IEEE Security & Privacy 84. On governing smart mobility from a public value perspective, see Iain Docherty, Greg Marsden, Jillian Anable, ‘The Governance of Smart Mobility’ (2018) 115 Transportation Research Part A 114. See also (though as a rather implicit position) Agusti Cerrillo-i-Martinez, ‘Fundamental Interests and Open Data for Re-use’ (2012) 20(3) International Journal of Law and Information Technology 203.

  15. 15.

    On this subject, see Andrew Geddes and Christina Boswell, Migration and Mobility in the European Union (Palgrave Macmillan 2011).

  16. 16.

    See Janneke Gerards, ‘Fundamental Rights and Other Interests: Should it Really Make a Difference?’ in Eva Brems (ed), Conflicts between Fundamental Rights (Intersentia 2008) 655.

  17. 17.

    Aart Hendriks, ‘Disabled Persons and their Right to Equal Treatment: Allowing Differentiation while Ending Discrimination’ (1995) 1(2) Health and Human Rights 152.

  18. 18.

    On socio-economic rights, see Ingrid Leijten, Core Socio-Economic Rights and the European Court of Human Rights (Cambridge University Press 2017).

  19. 19.

    David Bilchitz, Poverty and Fundamental Rights: The Justification and Enforcement of Socio-economic Rights (Oxford University Press 2008) 192. Amartya Sen, ‘The Standard of Living: Concepts and Critiques: Lecture I’, in Geoffrey Hawthorn (ed), The Standard of Living (Cambridge University Press 1987) 1, 18.

  20. 20.

    Matt Caywood and Alex Roy, ‘Universal Basic Mobility Is Coming: And It’s Long Overdue’ (CityLab, 3 October 2018) <www.citylab.com/perspective/2018/10/universal-basic-mobility-is-coming-and-its-long-overdue/572017/> accessed 18 March 2020.

  21. 21.

    Daniel Comeaux, ‘Movement Matters: Why We Should Commit to Universal Basic Mobility’ (Kennedy School Review, 30 July 2019) <https://ksr.hkspublications.org/2019/07/30/movement-matters-why-we-should-commit-to-universal-basic-mobility/> accessed 18 March 2020.

  22. 22.

    Lynn Scholl and others, ‘Urban Transport and Poverty: Mobility and Accessibility effects of IDB-Supported BRT Systems in Cali and Lima’ (Inter-American Development Bank 2016) <https://publications.iadb.org/en/urban-transport-and-poverty-mobility-and-accessibility-effects-idb-supported-brt-systems-cali-and> accessed 18 March 2020.

  23. 23.

    Greg Clark, Global Cities: A Short History (Brookings Institution Press 2016) 3.

  24. 24.

    On the notion of mobility, see Timothy Cresswell, On the Move: Mobility in the Modern Western World (Routledge 2006) 3-5.

  25. 25.

    Mary Gilmartin, Patricia Burke Wood, and Cian O’Callaghan, Borders, Mobility and Belonging in the Era of Brexit and Trump (University of Bristol Policy Press 2018) 37.

  26. 26.

    Randi Hjorthol, ‘Transport Resources, Mobility and Unmet Transport Needs in Old Age’ (2013) 33 Ageing & Society 1190; John Urry, Sociology beyond Societies: Mobilities for the Twenty-first Century (Routledge 2000).

  27. 27.

    Fumihiko Nakamura, ‘Role of Connected Mobility for Twenty-first-century Cities—Trial Approach for Conceptualization of Connected Mobility through Case Studies’ (2014) 38(1) International Association of Traffic and Safety Sciences IATSS Research 52.

  28. 28.

    European Commission, ‘European Urban Mobility, Policy Context’ (European Commission 2017) <https://ec.europa.eu/transport/sites/transport/files/2017-sustainable-urban-mobility-policy-context.pdf> accessed 18 March 2020.

  29. 29.

    Clara Benevolo, Renata P Dameri and Beatrice d’Auria, ‘Smart Mobility in Smart City’ in Teresina Torre, Alessio Braccini, Ricardo Spinelli (eds), Empowering Institutions. Lecture Notes in Information Systems and Organisation, vol 11 (Springer 2016) 13; Neus Baucells Aletà, Concepción Moreno Alonso and Rosa M Arce Ruiz, ‘Smart Mobility and Smart Environment in the Spanish Cities’ (2017) 24 Transportation Research Procedia 163.

  30. 30.

    For a literature review on the definition of smart cities, see, for instance, Margarita Angelidou, ‘The Role of Smart City Characteristics in the Plans of Fifteen Cities’ (2017) 24(4) Journal of Urban Technology 3; Andrea Caragliu, Chiara del Bo and Peter Nijkamp, ‘Smart Cities in Europe’ (2011) 18(2) Journal of Urban Technology 6.

  31. 31.

    Eduardo M Costa and Alvaro D Oliveira, ‘Humane Smart Cities’ in Robert Frodeman (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity (Oxford University Press 2017).

  32. 32.

    Sandra Melo, Joaquim Macedo, Patrícia Baptista, ‘Guiding Cities to Pursue a Smart Mobility Paradigm: An Example from Vehicle Routing Guidance and its Traffic and Operational Effects’ (2017) 65 Research in Transportation Economics 24.

  33. 33.

    According to the European Commission, urban mobility accounts for 40% of all CO2 emissions from road transport and up to 70% of other pollutants from transport; see European Commission, ‘Urban Mobility’ (European Commission-Mobility and Transport 2019) <https://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/urban/urban_mobility_en> accessed 17 March 2020.

  34. 34.

    Hans Jeekel, ‘Social Sustainability and Smart Mobility: Exploring the Relationship’ (2017) 25 Transport Research Procedia 4296, 4305.

  35. 35.

    Docherty, Marsden and Anable (n 14).

  36. 36.

    Daniel E Rauch and David Schleicher, ‘Like Uber, but for Local Government: The Future of Local Regulation of the Sharing Economy’ (2015) 76(4) Ohio State Law Journal 901.

  37. 37.

    Margaret Grieco, ‘Poverty Mapping and Sustainable Transport: A Neglected Dimension’(2015) 51 Research in Transportation Economics 3, 8.

  38. 38.

    Docherty, Marsden and Anable (n 14) 115.

  39. 39.

    Glenn Lyons, ‘Getting Smart about Urban Mobility—Aligning the Paradigms of Smart and Sustainable’ (2018) 115 Transportation Research Part A 4, 6.

  40. 40.

    ibid.

  41. 41.

    Jung I Kim, ‘Making Cities Global: The New City Development of Songdo, Yjiapu and Lingang’ (2014) 29(3) Planning Perspectives 329, 351-2; Islam Bouzguenda, Chaham Alalouch, Nadia Fava, ‘Towards Smart Sustainable Cities: A Review of the Role Digital Citizen Participation Can Play in Advancing Social Sustainability’ (2019) 50 Sustainable Cities and Society 101627.

  42. 42.

    Lyons (n 39).

  43. 43.

    Tan Yigitcanlar and others, ‘Can Cities Become Smart without Being Sustainable? A Systematic View of the Literature’ (2019) 45 Sustainable Cities and Society 348, 360.

  44. 44.

    Institute for Transportation and Development Policy ITDP, ‘The High Cost of Transportation in the United States’ (ITDP Blog, 23 May 2019) <www.itdp.org/2019/05/23/high-cost-transportation-united-states/> accessed 9 January 2020.

  45. 45.

    Nicolas Valenzuela-Levi, ‘Why Do More Unequal Countries Spend More on Private Vehicles? Evidence and Implications for the Future of Cities’ (2018) 43 Sustainable Cities and Society 384.

  46. 46.

    McKinsey and Company, ‘Smart Cities: Digital Solutions for a More Livable Future’ (McKinsey Global Institute, June 2018) 105 <www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/industries/capital%20projects%20and%20infrastructure/our%20insights/smart%20cities%20digital%20solutions%20for%20a%20more%20livable%20future/mgi-smart-cities-full-report.ashx> accessed 17 March 2020.

  47. 47.

    For a thorough discussion of some of these problems and how mobility platforms are reshaping the public values of cities, see Sofia Ranchordas and Catalina Goanta, ‘The New City Regulators: Platform and Public Values for Smart and Sharing Cities’ (2020) 36 Computer Law & Security Review (in press, corrected proof available) <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2019.105375> accessed 17 March 2020.

  48. 48.

    On the definition of access and the disruption of property as a model of stability, see Shelly Kreiczer-Levy, Destabilized Property: Property Law in the Sharing Economy (Cambridge University Press 2019) 78-80.

  49. 49.

    Nynke Veilinga, ‘From the Testing to the Deployment of Self-driving Cars: Legal Challenges to Policymakers on the Road Ahead’ (2017) 33(6) Computer Law & Security 847; Nynke Veilinga, ‘Automated Driving and its Challenges to International Traffic: Which Way to Go?’ (2019) 11(2) Law, Innovation, and Technology 257.

  50. 50.

    See, for example, Brishen Rogers, ‘The Social Costs of Uber’ (2017) 82 University of Chicago Law Review Online 82.

  51. 51.

    Nagendra R Velaga and others, ‘Transport Poverty Meets the Digital Divide: Accessibility and Connectivity in Rural Communities’ (2012) 21 Journal of Transport Poverty 102. Philip Alston, United Nations Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, drew attention to the problem of rural poverty and the geographical isolation experienced by rural dwellers; see Philip Alston, ‘Statement on Visit to the United Kingdom’ (United Nations Human Rights Office of the Higher Commissioner, 16 November 2018) <www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23881&LangID=E> accessed 9 January 2020.

  52. 52.

    On the relationship between technology and social inequality, see Susan Halford and Mike Savage, ‘Reconceptualizing Digital Social Inequality’ (2010) 13(7) Information, Communication & Society 937.

  53. 53.

    Karen Lucas and others, ‘Transport poverty and its adverse social consequences’ (2016) 169(6) Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Transport, 353 <https://doi.org/10.1680/jtran.15.00073> accessed 9 January 2020.

  54. 54.

    Samina Syed and others, ‘Traveling Towards Disease: Transportation Barriers to Health Care Access’ (2013) 38(5) Journal of Community Health 976.

  55. 55.

    Margaret Grieco, ‘Transportation in African Cities: An Institutional Perspective’ in Nancy Brooks, Kieran Donaghy, and Gerrit-Jan Knaap (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Urban Economics and Planning (Oxford University Press 2011) 834, 835. Social Exclusion Unit, ‘Making the Connections: Final Report on Transport and Social Exclusion’ (Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, February 2003) <www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/%2D%2D-ed_emp/%2D%2D-emp_policy/%2D%2D-invest/documents/publication/wcms_asist_8210.pdf> accessed 7 January 2020. See also Giuseppina Pellegrino (ed), The Politics of Proximity: Mobility and Immobility in Practice (Routledge 2011).

  56. 56.

    Kevin DeGood and Andrew Schwartz, ‘Can New Transportatin Technologies Improve Equity and Access to Equity and Opportunity’ (Center for American Progress, 27 April 2016) <http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/economy/reports/2016/04/27/135425/can-new-transportation-technologies-improve-equity-and-access-to-opportunity/> accessed 17 July 2020.

  57. 57.

    Sustrans, ‘Locked Out: Transport Poverty in England’ (Sustrans, 2012) <www.sustrans.org.uk/media/3706/transport-poverty-england-2012.pdf> accessed 21 October 2019; Karen Lucas and others, ‘Inequalities in Mobility and Access in the UK Transport System’ (Foresight, Government Office for Science 2019) <https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/784685/future_of_mobility_access.pdf> accessed 21 October 2019.

  58. 58.

    Verne Transport Research Centre, ‘Report: What is Transport Poverty? Is there Transport Poverty in Finland? Who are the Victims of it?’ (Verne Transport Research Centre, 12 February 2018) <www.tut.fi/verne/transport-poverty-preliminary/#more-7252> accessed 21 October 2019.

  59. 59.

    Centraal Bureau van Statistiek CBS, ‘Risico op vervoersarmoede. Een eerste aanzet tot een indicator’ (CBS 2018) <www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/achtergrond/2019/42/indicator-risico-op-vervoersarmoede> accessed 21 October 2019.

  60. 60.

    A Church, M Frost, and K Sullivan, ‘Transport and Social Exclusion in London’ (2000) 7(3) Transport Policy 195.

  61. 61.

    Verne Transport Research Centre (n 58).

  62. 62.

    This was concluded in two case studies on transport poverty in Rotterdam and The Hague; Rob van der Bijl, ‘Vervoersarmoede in de grote stad ontrafeld’ (Verkeerskunde, 25 April 2019) <www.verkeerskunde.nl/internetartikelen/vakartikelen/vervoersarmoede-in-de-grote-stad-ontrafeld.57552.lynkx?pageStart23314=41> accessed 22 October 2019.

  63. 63.

    Xavier Godard, ‘Poverty and Urban Mobility: Diagnosis toward a New Understanding’ in Harry T Dimitrou and Ralph Gakenheimer (eds), Urban Transport in the Developing World: A Handbook of Policy and Practice (Edward Elgar 2011) 232.

  64. 64.

    Collin McFarlane, Learning the City, Knowledge and Translocal Assemblage (Wiley-Blackwell 2011); Alan Wiig, ‘IBM’s Smart City as Techno-utopian Policy Mobility’ (2015) 19(2) City 258, 260.

  65. 65.

    Ola Söderström, Till Paasche and Francisco Klauser, ‘Smart Cities as Corporate Storytelling’ (2014) 18(3) City 307; Skip Descant, ‘Digital Literacy is at the Heart of a Thriving Smart City’ (Government Technology, 30 March 2018) <www.govtech.com/applications/Digital-Literacy-Is-at-the-Heart-of-a-Thriving-Smart-City.html> accessed 5 January 2020; Melissa Gilbert, ‘Theorizing Digital and Urban Inequalities’ (2010) 13(7) Information, Communication & Society 1000.

  66. 66.

    Philip Alston, ‘Statement on Visit to the United Kingdom’ (United Nations Human Rights, Office of the Higher Commissioner, 16 November 2018), <www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23881&LangID=E> accessed 5 January 2020.

  67. 67.

    See, for example, Daniel Comeaux, ‘Movement Matters: Why We Should Commit to Universal Basic Mobility’ (Kennedy School Review, 30 July 2019) <https://ksr.hkspublications.org/2019/07/30/movement-matters-why-we-should-commit-to-universal-basic-mobility/> accessed 3 January 2020.

  68. 68.

    Duane W Schroeder, ‘The Right to Travel: In Search of a Constitutional Source’ (1976) 55(1) Nebraska Law Review 117.

  69. 69.

    Leonard B Boudin, ‘The Constitutional Right to Travel’ (1956) 56(1) Columbia Law Review 47.

  70. 70.

    See Richard Sobel, ‘The Right to Travel and Privacy: Intersecting Fundamental Freedoms’ (2014) 30(4) The John Marshall Journal of Information Technology & Privacy Law 639.

  71. 71.

    Tim Cresswell, ‘The Right to Mobility: The Production of Mobility in the Courtroom’ (2006) 38(4) Antipode 735, 743.

  72. 72.

    ibid 739.

  73. 73.

    See Lalin Kovudhikulrungsri, ‘The Accessibility Standards with respect to Air Travel in the European Union’ (2018) 1 Handicap & Recht 20; Lalin Kovudhikulrungsri, ‘Human Rights in the Sky: Weighing Human Rights against the Law on International Carriage by Air’ (2018) 11(1) European Journal of Legal Studies 39.

  74. 74.

    Exceptions have been Tallinn, Luxembourg and Cascais (as of 2020), which have adopted a system of free transportation for all registered residents. See Sect. 4.2 for further information.

  75. 75.

    Loi no 82-1153 du 30 december 1982, art 2. Caroline Gallez, Benjamin Motte-Baumvol, ‘Inclusive Mobility or Inclusive Accessibility? A European Perspective’ (2017) 56 Deusto Journal of European Studies 79.

  76. 76.

    OpenExp, ‘European Energy Poverty Index EEPI’ <www.openexp.eu/european-energy-poverty-index-eepi> accessed 5 January 2020.

  77. 77.

    Julie Colin, ‘Digital Illiteracy: The Challenge of Getting around without a Smartphone’ (InMovement, 23 November 2018) <http://www.inmvt.com/en/insight/digital-illiteracy-challenge-getting-around-without-smartphone/> accessed 9 January 2020.

  78. 78.

    John C Bertot, ‘The Multiple Dimensions of the Digital Divide, More than Technology ‘Haves’ and ‘Have-Nots” (2003) 20(2) Government Information Quarterly 185. On the problem of digital literacy and how it can be addressed with digital literacy courses, see Stichting Lezen en Schrijven, ‘Laaggeletterden: achterblijvers in de digitale wereld?’ (ECBO, 2015) <www.lezenenschrijven.nl/uploads/editor/ecbo.15-217-Laaggeletterden-achterblijvers-in-de-digitale-wereld-web.pdf> accessed 5 January 2020.

  79. 79.

    Sandra Fredman, ‘The Potential and Limits of an Equal Rights Paradigm in Addressing Poverty’ (2011) 22(3) Stellenbosch Law Review 566.

  80. 80.

    Meghan Campbell, Women, Poverty, Equality: The Role of CEDAW (Bloomsbury 2018) 150. Sara Burke, Tackling Poverty: Tackling Health Inequalities (Combat Poverty Agency 2009) 26.

  81. 81.

    Janneke H Gerards, ‘Intensity of Judicial Review in Equal Treatment Cases’ (2004) 51(2) Netherlands International Law Review 135.

  82. 82.

    Kieran Tranter and Judith Kelly, ‘Private Motor Vehicle Ownership in Australian Social Security Law’ (2014) 21(1) Journal of Social Security Law 32, 42.

  83. 83.

    Mimmi Sheller, Mobility Justice: The Politics of Movement in the Age of Extremes (Verso 2018).

  84. 84.

    Mimmi Sheller, ‘Theorising Mobility Justice’ (2018) 30(2) Tempo Social: Revista Sociologica da USP 17, 28-9.

  85. 85.

    Sandra Fredman, ‘The Public Sector Equality Duty’ (2011) 40(4) Industrial Law Journal 405, 406-7.

  86. 86.

    See, for example, Miranda P Fleischer and Daniel J Hemel, ‘The Architecture of a Basic Income’ (2019) University of San Diego School of Law: Legal Studies Research Paper Series 19-401 <https://ssrn.com/abstract=3346467> accessed 10 January 2020; Erika Schutt, ‘A Quasi-Experiment for Universal Basic Income: Evidence from Remittances in Colombia’ (2019) University of Miami Business School Research Paper 3430801 <https://ssrn.com/abstract=3430801 or https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3430801> accessed 10 January 2020; Bryant W Sculos, ‘Changing Lives and Minds: Progress, Strategy, and Universal Basic Income’ (2019) 41(2) New Political Science 234-247.

  87. 87.

    Vincent Varney, ‘Why Universal Basic Mobility Is an Economic Necessity for an Autonomous Future’ (Here360, 18 January 2019) <https://360.here.com/on-universal-basic-mobility-and-tackling-the-high-cost-of-poor-transport> accessed 5 November 2019.

  88. 88.

    André Chassaigne and others, ‘Proposition de loi visant à encourager la gratuité des transports collectifs urbains et périurbains enregistrée à la Présidence de l’Assemblée nationale’ (Assemblée Nationale France, 19 September 2018) <http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/15/propositions/pion1242.asp> accessed 10 January 2020.

  89. 89.

    Carri Ginter, ‘Free Public Transport of Tallinn, Estonia: a Case to Justify (Reverse) Discrimination on the Basis of Residence’ (2017) 42(6) European Law Review 894.

  90. 90.

    ibid.

  91. 91.

    Case C-103/08 Arthur Gottwald v Bezirkshauptmannschaft Bregenz [2009] ECR I-09117.

  92. 92.

    Joao Saramago, ‘Transportes gratuitos’ (CM, 2 January 2020) <https://www.cmjornal.pt/portugal/cidades/detalhe/transportes-gratuitos-para-todos-em-cascais> accessed 9 January 2020.

  93. 93.

    Rachel E. Cowan et al., ‘Recent Trends in Assistive Technology for mobility’ (2012) 9 NeuroEngineering Rehabilation 20 <https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-0003-9-20>.

  94. 94.

    Christoph Schlieder and others, ‘Assisted Technology to Support the Mobility of Senior Citizens’ (2013) 27 KI – Künstliche Intelligenz 247.

  95. 95.

    ‘App&Town’ (Mass Factory Urban Accessible Mobility SL, 2019) <http://www.appandtown.com/index.html> accessed 10 January 2020.

  96. 96.

    This is the case for HiReach, coordinated by TRT Trasporti e Territorio (Italy); more information and results available at Community Research and Development Information Services, ‘Fact Sheet: High Reach Innovative Mobility Solutions to Cope With Transport Poverty’ (CORDIS, 22 January 2020) <https://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/211649/factsheet/en> accessed 10 January 2020.

  97. 97.

    Groth (n 1).

  98. 98.

    Barbara Flügge, ‘The Mobility Ecosystem’ in Barbara Flügge (ed), Smart Mobility—Connecting Everyone. Trends, Concepts and Best Practices (Springer Vieweg 2017) 48.

  99. 99.

    Thomas Coggin and Marius Pieterse, ‘A Right to Transport? Moving Towards a Right-Based Approach to Mobility in the City’ (2015) 31(2) South African Journal on Human Rights 294, 296.

  100. 100.

    Luca Belli, Pedro Francisco and Nicolo Zingales, ‘Law of the Land or Law of the Platform? Beware of the Privatisation of Regulation and Police’ in Luca Belli and Nicolo Zingales (eds), Platform Regulations. How Platforms Are Regulated and How They Regulate Us (FGV Direito Rio 2017) 59.

  101. 101.

    Ash Armin, ‘Telescopic Urbanism and the Poor’ (2013) 17(4) City 476.

  102. 102.

    Jeff Allen and Steven Farber, ‘Sizing up Transport Poverty: A National Scale Accounting of Low-income Households Suffering from Inaccessibility in Canada, and What to Do about it’ (2019) 74 Transport Policy 214, 215.

  103. 103.

    Lyons (n 39) 12.

  104. 104.

    See Shazade Jameson, Christine Richter and Linnet Taylor, ‘People’s strategies for perceived surveillance in Amsterdam Smart City’ (2019) 40(1) Urban Geography 1467.

  105. 105.

    Velaga and others (n 11) 104-5.

  106. 106.

    See Sefa A Churchill and Russell Smyth, ‘Transport Poverty and Subjective Wellbeing’ (2019) 124 (C) Transport Research Part A 40.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Groningen, Faculty of Law, Groningen, The Netherlands

    Sofia Ranchordás

Authors
  1. Sofia Ranchordás
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sofia Ranchordás .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. MPI for Innovation and Competition, Munich, Germany

    Michèle Finck , Matthias Lamping , Valentina Moscon  & Heiko Richter , ,  & 

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Ranchordás, S. (2020). Smart Mobility, Transport Poverty and the Legal Framework of Inclusive Mobility. In: Finck, M., Lamping, M., Moscon, V., Richter, H. (eds) Smart Urban Mobility. MPI Studies on Intellectual Property and Competition Law, vol 29. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-61920-9_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-61920-9_4

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-662-61919-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-662-61920-9

  • eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation