Abstract
The large inventory of radioactive substances in a nuclear reactor or in an intermediate storage system as example represents the real problem of use of nuclear energy. Just very small shares of this material are allowed to be released during normal operation and accidents. There are several requirements which have to be fulfilled to meet this requirement: safe removal of the decay heat, maintaining an admissible neutron balance, protection of the barriers for fission product retention in the plant, and radiation protection. This chapter discusses some accidents, which could restrict these requirements. A major aspect is decay heat production and removal. For a modular HTR, the self-acting principle of decay heat removal just uses conduction, radiation, and natural convection. No supply of electricity and water are necessary. Core meltdown or overheating above 1600 °C, corresponding to today available TRISO fuel, are not possible in a suitable designed reactor, if all active decay heat removal has failed. The release of fission products then is limited to small values. An important step of heat transport inside the core occurs mainly by radiation and conduction in case of a depressurized system. If the reactor stays under pressure, natural convection becomes relevant too and the heating up of internal components has to be considered. The outer heat sink consists of a surface cooler, and finally, the decay heat can be stored in concrete. Even if all building structures would be destroyed, the self-acting heat removal works and the maximal fuel temperature stays limited near 1600 °C. Modular HTR has a strong negative temperature and power coefficient, and this characteristic causes a stabilization of the chain reaction even in case of extreme reactivity accidents. As an example, if the total first shutdown system would be lost, the maximal fuel temperature would stay below 1600 °C. Air ingress accidents could cause corrosion of fuel elements and structures, and explosive gas mixture could be formed. These effects are governed by a suitable design of the inner concrete cell, by a filter system, and by the reactor building. The amount of air, which is ingressing into the primary circuit and which is responsible for graphite corrosion, will be limited to tolerable values. The ingress of water into the reactor is limited by a special design of the steam generator and by arranging this component geodetically under the core. In extreme accidents of water ingress, the water can be removed from the primary system in short time. Nuclear power plants today have to be designed against strong impacts from outside. Some important cases are earthquake, tsunami, explosion of gas clouds, tornados, and airplane crash. Some conditions of these events and measures against it are explained in this chapter. Further developments are possible; especially, underground siting could principally improve the safety standards. The failure of large components as example on the secondary side could initiate subsequent damages of the core; therefore, their consequences have to be considered in the licensing process, and measures have to be realized to avoid damages. The release of fission products from the primary system can be possible because of two source terms. On the one hand, radioactive substance, which has been deposited on graphite or metallic surface during operation, can be remobilized and transported out of the primary circuit. The second source term is caused by heating up the fuel elements after a loss of coolant accident. The further release of radioactivity from the plant depends on the velocity of depressurization of the primary system and an effective filtering behind the inner concrete cell. For modular HTR, solutions can be realized with very small release to the environment. The risk caused by the plants normally is expressed by the number of early and late fatalities, by the loss of land due to contamination, and by monetary damage. For a well-designed modular HTR, no serious consequences must be expected.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Objectives for the development of advanced nuclear plants, IAEA, IAEA-TECDOC-682, Jan. 1993
Law on the peaceful use of nuclear energy and the protection against the danger of radiation, Atomic Law in Germany, 1976, 1985, 2009
BFS, Safety codes and guide – endance for the periodical safety analysis of nuclear power plants, BFS edition, Dec. 1996
Hauptmanns U., Hettrich M., Werner W., Technical risks, calculations and evaluation, Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, London, Paris, Tokyo, 1987
Safety of nuclear plants, Publication of compilations of necessary information, which has to be proven in the licensing and supervision processes for nuclear power plants, BMI, Bonn, October, 1982
Farmer F., Siting criteria, a new approach, Proceedings IAEA, Containment and Siting of Nuclear Power Plants, BMI, Bonn, October 1982
Russel C.R., Reactor safeguards, Pergamon Press, Oxford, London, New York, Paris, 1962
Rasmussen N.C., Reactor study – an assessment of accident risks in US commercial nuclear power plants, United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, WASH 1400/NUREG75/014, October 1975
Kuczera B., Innovative trends in the technology of Light Water Reactors, KFK-Nachrichten, 25.4, 1993
Götzmann G.A., On safety principles for future reactors – a contribution to the current discussion, Nuclear Power Technology Development Section Division of Nuclear Power, IAEA, December, 1993
International scale for evaluation of the importance of accidents in nuclear power plants (International Event Scale), IAEA, Vienna, 1990
Levi H.W., The accident in Chernobyl – a balance of consequences, VGB-Kraftwerkstechnik, 71, Heft 12, 1991, GRS, Tschernobyl-10 years later, GRS-121,February 1996
OECD-NEA:TMI1-2, Examination results from the OECD-CSNI-program, Vol.1, 1992(CSNI/R)91)9
]www.IAEA.org, Fukushima nuclear accident, Update log, since 11.3.2011
www.GRS.de, Informations on the situation in the Japanese nuclear power plants, Since 3.11.2011
VDI-statement, The safety relevant design of nuclear plants in Germany against terroristic attack, VDI, Düsseldorf, Nov. 2001
Dräger, P., Safety factors of reactor containments for nuclear power plants against terroristic attack with large commercial air planes, München, 2001
IAEA, Extreme external events in the design and assessment of nuclear power plants, IAEA-TECDOC-1341, Vienna, March 2003
Fabian, H.U.; Teichel, H., The European Pressurized –Water Reactor (EPR)-Status and prospects, Atomwirtschaft, 44.Jg., 2, 1999
Schmidt, E., Outflow of gases from vessel with high pressure, Chemie Ing.Technik, 37.Jg., Nr.11, 1965
Schäfer, M., Analysis of depressurization process of the primary circuit of a pebble bed high temperature reactor after break of a main cooling pipe, Dissert. RWTH Aachen, 1976
Ybarroudo, L.J.; Solbrig, C.W.; Isbin, H.S., The Calculated Loss of Coolant Accident, A Review; AICHE-Monograph, Series Nr. 7, 1972
Streeter, V.L., Handbook of fluid dynamics, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1962
EL Wakil M.M., Nuclear power engineering, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1962
Lewis, M.M., Nuclear Power Reactor Safety, John Wiley+Sons, New York, 1977
Melese, G.; Katz, R., Thermal and flow design of helium cooled reactors, American Nuclear Society, La Grange Park, Illinois, USA, 1984
Struth S., Stöcker B., Hurtado A., Component exposure in hypothetical accidents with very fast depressurization in a HTR modular reactor, Nuclear Engineering and Design, 190, 1999
Jühe S., Calculation of the depressurization from a leak in the helium circuit of a high-temperature reactor and of the buildup of pressure and gas distribution in the surrounding rooms, Study, RWTH Aachen, Aug. 2005
Jühe S., Release of carbon dust in case of depressurization of high-temperature reactors, Diss. RWTH Aachen, Dez.2011
Reactor Physics Constants, US Atomic Energy Commission Report, ANL 5800, 2nd ed. 1963
American national standard for decay heat in light water reactors, ANSI/ANS-5.1-1979
DIN 25485, Calculation of the decay heat production of the nuclear fuels of high temperature reactors with spherical fuel elements, Mai 1990
Gerwin, H.; Scherer, W., The calculation of decay heat in the reactor dynamical program TINTE, JÜL-Report, June 1993
Teuchert, E. et al., VSOP(94)-computer code system for reactor physics and fuel cycle simulation, JÜL-2897, 1994
Smidt, D., Reactor safety technology, Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1979
Verfondern, K., Numerical analysis of the 3 dimensional stationary temperature and flow distribution in the core of a high temperature reactor ,JÜL-1826, Jan. 1983
Holzkamp, K., Thermo-hydraulic analysis for the primary circuit of HTR for the decay heat removal with natural convection on the example of HTR 500, Diss. RWTH Aachen, July 1987
Singh, J.; Schneider, U., Calculation of the heat release by natural convection in the stationary region of gas cooled reactors by the computer program Nakosta, JÜL-770-RG, 1974
Bogoslovski V.N., Principles of heat technology, Bauverlag GmbH, Wiesbaden, Berlin, 1982
Faßbender, J.; Kröger, W.; Rehm, W.; Wolters, J.; Verfondern, K; Geiß, H., Calculation of radiation doses in the surrounding area of THTR 300 because of an assumed core heating up accident, JÜL-Spez.275, Sept. 1984
Petersen, K.; Bartels, H.; Breitbach, G., The natural convection in the core of the pebble bed reactor, Reaktortagung, 1976
Rehm, W. et al., Safety analysis of core cooling accident of small and medium HTR, BWK, Bd. 37,1985
Interatom, Kraftwerksunion AG, High temperature-modul-power plant, Vol.1, Technical concept and safety, Jan. 1984
Lukaszewicz U., The temperature behavior of an high temperature reactor after total loss of cooling, JÜL-1112-RG, Oct. 1974
Petersen, K., Safety concept of high temperature reactor with natural heat release from the core of HTR after accidents, JÜL-1872, Oct. 1983
Reutler, H.; Lohnert, H.G., Advantages of going modular in HTR’s, Nuclear Engineering and Design, 78, 1984
Reutler, H., Concept of the modular HTR in two vessel-primary enclosure , Atomwirtschaft. Aug./Sept. 1985
Lohnert, G.H., Technical design features and essential safety-related properties of the HTR-Module, Nuclear Engineering and Design, 121, 1990
Rehm, W., Temperature transients in a pebble bed high temperature reactor in case of an extreme disturbed decay heat removal, Brennstoff-Wärme-Kraft 33, Nr.7/8, 1984
Kugeler, K.; Schulten, R., Considerations on the safety principle in the nuclear energy, JÜL-2172, July 1992
Schenk, W., Simulation of accidents on irradiated spherical fuel elements at temperature between 1400 till 2500℃, JÜL-1883, Dec. 1983
Schenk, W.; Pitzer, D.; Nabielek, H., Fission product release of spherical fuel elements at accident temperatures, JÜL-2091, Oct.1986
IAEA, Fuel performance and fission product behavior in gas-cooled reactors, IAEA TECDOC-978, Vienna, Nov. 1997
Fission product behavior in nuclear reactors, Seminar ZFK Rossendorf-KFA-Jülich, Sept. 1991
Verfondern, K; Martin, R.C.; Moormann, R., Methods and data for HTGR fuel performance and radionuclide release modeling during normal operation and accidents for safety analysis, FZJ-report-Juel-2721, January 1993
Schenk, W.; Gontard, R.; Nabielek, H., Performance of HTR samples under high irradiation and accident simulation conditions with emphasis on test capsules HTR-P4 and SL-P1, FZJ-report-Juel-3373, April 1997
Freis D., Accident simulation and post-irradiation examination on spherical fuel elements for high-temperature reactors, Diss. RWTH Aachen, 2010
Schenk, W.; Verfondern, K.; Nabielek, H.; Toscana, E.H., Limits of LEU TRISO Particle Performance, Proceedings HTR-TN International HTR Fuel Seminar, Brussel, Belgium, February 1–2, 2001
Nickel, H.; Nabielek, H.; Pott, G.; Mehner, A.W., Long Time Experience with HTR Fuel Elements, Proceedings HTR-TN, International HTR Fuel Seminar, Brussel, Belgium, February 1–2, 2001
Nickel, H., HTR coated particles and fuel elements, HTR/ECS 2002, Cadarache, 2002
Fricke, U., Analysis on the possibilities to rise up the power of inherently safe high temperature reactors by optimization of the core design, Dissert University GH Duisburg, 1987
VDI, VDI heat atlas, calculation methods for heat transfer, VDI Verlag, Düsseldorf, 1988
Scherer,W. et al., The self-acting safe limitation of nuclear power and fuel element temperature of innovative nuclear reactors, JÜL-2960,1994
Scherer,W., Physics of the pebble bed high temperature reactor at massive ingress of water accidents, JÜL-2316, Oct.1989
Scherer, W.; Gerwin, H., Analysis of hypothetical transients in gas cooled HTGR with coated particle fuel, Comp.Workshop, Cologne, 2001
Scherer, W., Principles of HTR-Neutronics, HTR/ECS 2002, Cadarache, 2002
Knief, R.A., Nuclear Engineering, Taylor+Francis, Bristol, London, 1980
Schmeiser, K., Radioactive isotopes-their production and application, Springer, Berlin, Göttingen, Heidelberg, 1957
Stolz, W., Radioactivity; fundaments, measurement, application, Carl Hanser Verlag, München, Wein, 1990
Lamarsh J.R., Introduction to nuclear engineering, Addison Wesley Publishing Comp. Reading, 1983
Lederer, B.J.; Wildberg, D.W., Reactor handbook; basic nuclear regulations for operators in nuclear power plants, Carl Hanser Verlag, München, Wein, 1992
Blizard, E.P.; Abbott, L.S. (edit.), Reactor handbook, Vol.III, Part B, Shielding, Interscience publishers, adiv.Og J.Wiley+Sons, New York, London, 1962
Koelzer, W., Lexikon of nuclear energy, Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, 2001
NN, Probability of severe earthquakes, characteristic data safety analysis for HTR concepts, applying German site conditions; Main Volume for Phase IB,JÜL-Spez.136, Dec. 1983
Farmer F.R., Nuclear reactor safety, Academic Press, New York, San Francisco, London, 1977
Delle, W.; Koizlik, K.; Nickel, H., Grafitic materials for application in nuclear reactors, Teil 1 and 2, Karl Thiemig AG, München, 1983
Kim. D., Taking into operation again of the liner cooling of a HTR PCRV of a plant with medium power after a core heatup accident with loss of helium cooling, JŰL-2543, Diss. RWTH Aachen, 1991
Otto, K.W., Analysis of the safety potential of high temperature reactors in case of failure of decay heat removal, Diss. RWTH Aachen, 1978
HTGR 1160, Safety study for HTR concepts applying German site conditions, Phase IB,Vol.IV,, JÜL-Spez-136, Dec. 1981
Kröger, W., Safety analysis of the HTR 500, JÜL-Conf.53, June 1985
Rehm, W.; Jahn, W.; Verfondern, K., Passive decay heat removal at HTR using the liner cooling system as heat sink, Diss. RWTH Aachen, 1978
Altes, J. et al., Contributions regarding the accident behavior of HTR 500-a trend analysis , JÜL-Spez-220, Spet. 1983
Wachholz, W., The safety characteristics of the high temperature reactor HTR-500, Kerntechnik 51, 1987
Rütten, H., Development of temperatures in the HTR-Modul in case of extreme disturbance of the decay heat removal by rubble , Private communication, 2007
Scherer, W.; Gerwin, H.; Werner, H., The AVR as a touchstone for the theoretical models on reactor physics, AVR-Experimental High Temperature Reactor,21 years of successful operation for a future energy technology,VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf, 1990
Soodak, H. edit., Reactor handbook, Vol.III, Part A; Physics, Interscience Publishers, New York , 1962
Lohnert, G.H., Technical Design Features and Essential Safety Related Properties of the HTR-Module, Nuclear Engineering and Design, 121,1990
Teuchert, E.et al., Reduction of the reactivity of water ingress in modular pebble bed high temperature reactors, Nuclear Technology, Vol.102, May 1993
Wischnewski, R., Analysis on the forming of water gas during accident of HTR-plants on behalf of the example of a planned rising up the hot gas temperature of AVR to 950℃, Diss. RWTH Aachen, 1974
Loenißen, K.J., Analysis on the pressure dependence of the graphite-steam reaction in the porous diffusion region in connection with water ingress accident in high temperature reactors, JÜL-2266, Sept.1987
Kubatschewski, P.; Heinrich, B.; Heit, W., Corrosion of graphitic reactor components in operation and in accidents, Reaktortagung, 1984
Fröhling, W. et al., On the chemical stability of innovative nuclear reactors, JÜL-2960, Aug. 1994
Wawrzik, U., Numerical simulation of the plant behavior of a high temperature reactor in case of water ingress accidents on the example of AVR, JÜL-1908, March 1984
Wolters, J.; Ashworth, F.D.; Meister, G.; Jahn, W.; Rehm, W.; Terkessidis, J., Analysis of hypothetical accidents of water ingress at THTR 300, KFA-ISF-IB 8/82, June 1982
Hübel, H.; Lohnert, G., The safety concept of HTR-Modul, explained on the example of the water ingress into the primary circuit, KTG-Fachtagung; Safety of high temperature reactors, Jülich, March 1985
Moormann, R., Analysis of accidents with massive water ingress for the example of the pebble bed reactor PNP 500, JÜL-Spez.-333, Oct. 1985
Wolters, J.; Breitbach, G.; Moormann, R., Air and water ingress accidents in a HTR-Modul of side-by-side concept, Proc. Spec. Meeting, Oakridge, 1985
Steinbrink, W., Analysis of the application of an emergency cooling measure by water injection into the core of a pebble bed high temperature reactor as a diversary decay heat removal system after extreme loss of cooling accidents, Dissert. Univ.-GH-Duisburg, 1986
Stuhlgieß A., The behavior of water in the core of HTR-plants-corrosion of fuel elements with special emphasis on the Leidenfrost effect, Dissert. Univ.-GH-Duisburg, 1986
Kugeler, K.; Stuhlgies, A; Epping, Ch., Aerosol Formation During Water Ingress into the Core of a Pebble Bed High-Temperature Reactor, Aerosol Science and Technology, 9, 1988
Wolters,J. et al., Occurrences during steam generator leakages, In:Breitbach, G. et al., Safety relevant analysis for accidents of HTR-modul, JÜL-Spez.-335, Nov. 1985
Wolters,J.;Kröger,W. et al., On the accident behavior of the HTR-Modul-a trend analysis, JÜL-Spez.-260, June 1984
Wolters,J., Risk analysis for the HTR-Modul, In:Safety of high temperature reactors, KTG/KFA, Tagung in Jülich, March 1985
Wolters,J.; Bongartz, R.; Jahn, W.;Moormann, R., The significance of water ingress accident in small HTR’s, Nuclear Engineering and Design, 109, 1988
Scherer, W., On the physics of pebble bed high temperature reactor at massive water ingress accidents, JÜL-2316, Oct. 1989
Pelloni, S. et al., Parameter study on water ingress in a high temperature reactor, Kerntechnik 53, No.3, 1989
Soscik-Kostic, M., Thermofluid dynamic, corrosion and reactivity effects in case of water and air ingress accidents in high temperature reactors, JÜL-2437, Febr. 1991
Lohnert, G.H., The consequences of water ingress into the primary circuit of an HTR-Module from design basis accident to hypothetical postulates, Nuclear Engineering and Design, 134, 1992
Teuchert, E.;Haas, K.A.; Rütten, H.J.; Sun, Y., Reduction of the reactivity of water ingress in modular pebble bed high temperature reactors, Nuclear Technology, Vol.102, May 1993
Zhang, Z.;Scherer, W., Numerical Simulation of Severe Water Ingress Accidents in a Modular High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor, JÜL-3180, Nov. 1995
Esser, F., Experimental analysis of the transport of droplets and of separation in the gas circuit of high temperature reactors during water ingress accidents, Dissert. RWTH Aachen, Febr.1998
Leber A., Transport and separation of water droplets in the primary circuit of high-temperature reactors in case of water ingress accidents, JŰL-4050, April 2003
Bürkholz A., Droplet separation, VCH-Verlagsellschaft, Weinheim, 1989
Meunier, J., Gasification of solid fuels and oxidative conversion of hydro carbons, Verlag Chemie GmbH, Weinheim, 1962
Jüntgen, H.; van Heek, K.H., Coal gasification, fundaments and technical applications, Verlag K. Thiemig, München, 1981
Thompson, T.J., Accidents and Destructive Test in the Technology of Nuclear Reactor Safety, Vol.1, The MIT Press, 1964
Ash,M., Nuclear Reactor Kinetics, McGraw,New York,1979
Massimo,L., Physics of high temperature reactors, Program Press;Oxford,New York ,Toronto,Sydney ,Paris,Braunschweig,1976
Breitenfelder,H.;Wachholz,W.;Weicht,U., Accident analysis and accident control for the THTR power plant, IAEA-Specialist Meeting ,Lausanne,Spet.1980
Ullrich,W.;Frisch,W., Investigations of anticipated transients without reactor scram and other selected devices, Nuclear Technology,Vol.41,Dec.1978
Nabbi,R.;Jahn,W.;Meister,G.Rehm,R., Safety analysis of the reactivity transient, resulting from water ingress into a high temperature pebble bed reactor, Nuclear technology,Vol.62,Aug.1983
Nabbi,R., Analysis of behavior of reactivity of HTR 500 during core heat up accidents, Reaktortagung,1984
Mertens.J. et al., Safety relevant analysis of accidents of HTR-module, JÜL-Spez-335,Nov.1985
Lohnert, G.H., The safety concept of the Modular HTR;in:Proc. Technical Committee Meeting on Gas-cooled Reactors and their Applications, Oct.20–23,1986, Jülich/FRG, IAEA-TECDOC-436,Wien,1987
Meem, J.L., Two group reactor theory, Gordon on Breach, Science Publishers, New York, London, 1964
Isbin, H.S., Introductory nuclear reactor theory, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, Chanmman+Hall, Ltd., London, 1963
Gerwin, H., Two dimensional reactor dynamical program TINTE, part 2, applications, JÜL-2266, Febr.1989
Nickel H., Nabielek H., Pott G., Mehner A.W., Long time experience with HTR fuel elements, Proceedings of HTR-TN International HTR Fuel Seminar, Brussels, Belgium, Feb. 2011
Rossberg, J.M.; Wicke, E., Transport processes and surface reactions during the burning of graphitic carbon, CHemie Ing. Technik, 28, 1956
Kugeler, M.; Romes, H., Measurement of the reaction rate of A3-Matrix graphite with air, Internal Report KFA/IRE, 1974
Moormann, R.; Petersen, K., REACT/THERMIX a computer program for the calculation of graphite corrosion in pebble bed reactors during accidents, JÜL-1782, April 1982
Moormann, R., Effect of delays in afterheat removal on consequences of massive air ingress accidents in high temperature gas cooled reactors, Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Vol.21, No.11, Nov. 1984
Hinssen, K.H.; Katscher, W.; Moormann, R., Kinetics of the graphite/oxygen reaction in the region of porous diffusion, part 1 and 2, JÜL-1985, Nov. 1983; JÜL-2052, April 1986
Katscher, W.; Moormann, R.; Hinssen, K.H., Kinetics of the graphite/oxygen reaction in the region of porous diffusion, Part 1:matrix material A3-3 and A3-27, JÜL-1897, Nov. 1998; Part 2:graphite V483T, ASR-IRS, ASR-IRG and ATR-2E, JÜL-2052, April 1986; Part 3:influence of diffusion in the flow boundary layer at measurements in the temperature region 970 K-1170 K, JÜL-'4, June 1989
Kugeler, K.; Epping, Ch.; Roes, J., Aerosol Formation during Air Ingress into the Core of a Pebble Bed High Temperature Reactor, Journal of Aerosol Science 19 (1988), S.1343–1346
Kugeler, K.; Schreiner, P.; Epping, Ch., Analysis of graphite corrosion by air, Kerntechnik, 53, 1988
Epping, Ch., The ingress of air into the core of a pebble bed high temperature reactor, Dissert. Univ GH-Duisburg, 1993
Hurtado-Guitierrez, A.M., Analysis on the massive air ingress into high temperature reactors, Dissert. RWTH Aachen, Dec. 1990
Schreiner, P.D, Analysis on the thermo-hydraulic and corrosion during air ingress into the core of a pebble bed high temperature reactor, Dissert. RWTH Aachen, Jan. 1994
Roes, J., Experimental analysis on the graphite corrosion and forming of aerosols during air ingress into the core of a pebble bed high temperature reactor, JÜL-2956, 1994
Moormann, R., Air ingress and graphite burning in HTR’s, A survey on analytical examinations performed with the code REACT/THERMIX;JÜL-3062, May 1995
Schaaf, Th., Experiments for the heat and material transport because of natural convection during air ingress accidents at high temperature reactors, JÜL-3620, Jan. 1999
Kuhlmann, M.B., Experiments on the transport on gases and graphite corrosion during air ingress accidents in high temperature reactors, Diss. RWTH Aachen, 2002
NN, Reduction of strength of materials by corrosion, Internal Report of LRS RWTH Aachen, 2005
Unger J., Flow convection, B.G.Teubner, Stuttgart, 1988
GRS, German risks study for nuclear power plants, Phase B, Vol.3, Reliability of components, Verlag TÜV Rheinland, Köln, 1989
Farmer, F.R. (ed.), Nuclear reactor safety, Academic Press, New York, San Francisco, London, 1977
Rysy, W., Pressurized water reactor power plants; safety relevant design, In:T. Bohn, Handbook energy, Vol.10, nuclear power plants, Technischer Verlag Resch, Verlag TÜV Rheinland, 1986
Ziegler, A., Nuclear power plant technology, Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, Tokyo, 1985
Tong, L.S., Principles of design improvement for Light Water Reactors, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation and Springer Verlag, New York, Berlin 1988
Tong, L.S.; Weisman, J., Thermal analysis of pressurized water reactors, American Nuclear Society, 1970
Bohn, T. (edit.), Handbook of Energy, Vol.10, Nuclear plants, Technischer Verlag Resch, Verlag TÜV Rheinland, 1986
GRS, German risks study for nuclear power plants, Phase B Main Volume, Verlag TÜV Rheinland, Köln, 1985
Netz, H., Economy of heat, B.G. Teubner Verlagsgesellschaft, Stuttgart, 1956
Bilek, E. Et al., Electrotechnology in nuclear power plants in:T. Bohn (edit.), Handbook of Energy, Vol.10, Nuclear power plants, Technischer Verlag Resch, Verlag TÜV Rheinland, 1986
British Electricity International, Modern power station practice Vol.7, Nuclear Power Generation, Pergamon Press. Oxford, New York, Seoul, Tokyo, 1992
IAEA, External events excluding earthquakes in the design of nuclear power plants, IAEA Safety Standard Series, No.Ns-G-1.3, 2003
KTA regulations, KTA 2000, Nuclear Technology Committee Salzgitter, 2000
GRS, German risks study for nuclear power plants, Phase B; a comprehensive version, GRS-72, June 1989
IAEA, Objectives for the development of advanced nuclear plants, IAEA, IAEA-TECDOC-682, Jan. 1993
Keβler K., Faude D., Ehrhardt J., Safety concepts of today introduced pressurized water reactors, KfK-Nachrichten, 25, No.1, 1993
GRS-Yearly Report 1993/1994, Development of common German-French safety goals and requirement for future reactors, München, 1995
Berg et al., Quantitative probabilistic safety criteria for the license and for the operation of nuclear plants, status and development in international comparison, Bfs, - SK01/03, Salzgitter, June 2003
BMI (Ministry of international affairs, Germany), Publication on the regulation for protection of nuclear power plants against blast waves from chemical reactions, by design of nuclear power plants related to strength of a discussed vibration and by safety distances, Sep. 1976
US-NRC, Evaluation of Explosions Postulate to Occur on Transportation Routes Near Nuclear Power Plants, Regulatory Guide 1.91, Revision 1, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1978
Ohashi, H. et al., Current status of research and development on system integration technology for connection between HTGR and hydrogen production system at IAEA, OECD/NEA 3rd information exchange meeting on the nuclear production of hydrogen
Giesbrecht, H. et al., Analysis of potential action of explosions of amounts of burnable gases, which are released to the atmosphere in a short time, Chemie Ing. Technik, 52, 1980
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERS, Guidelines for evaluation the characteristics of vapor cloud explosions, flash fires and BLEVEs, AICE, New York,1994
Baker, W.E. et al., Explosive Hazard and Evaluation, Fundamental Studies in Engineering, Vol.5, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1983
Puttock, J.S., Fuel Gas Explosion Guidelines, The Congestion Assessment Method, Chemie Symposium No.139, 1995
Riera, J.D., On the stress analysis of structure subjected to aircraft improved forces, Nucl. Eng. Des. 8, 1968
RSK (Reactor Safety Commission, Germany), RSK-regulations for pressurized water reactors, RSK-Office, Oct. 1981
Schrader, H., Analysis of extreme impacts from outside on nuclear facilities, Study at RWTH Aachen, April 2005
Dietrich, E.; Fürste, W., Loads and design of buildings of power plants in case of impacts from outside during air plane crash and gas cloud explosion, Techn. Mitteil. Krupp Forschung. Ber., Bd.31, 1973
Schnellenbach, G.; Stangenberg, F., New development in the field of design of nuclear power plants against air plane crash, VGB Kraftwerkstechnik, 59, Jan. 1979
Drittler, K.; Gruner, P.; Sütterlin, L., On the design of nuclear plants against impacts from outside; Part: air plane crash, Rep. IRS-W7, Institute für Reaktorsicherheit, Köln, 1973
Göller, B., Protection against missiles due to a failing PWR pressure vessel, Nuclear Engineering and Design 152,1994
GRS, German risk study nuclear power plants, Phase B, Vol.6, Calculation of consequences of accidents and results for risks, Verlag TÜV Rheinland, Köln, 1989
Mallet, O.; Klaus,R., The European Pressurized Water Reactor EPR, ICONE 8 (Proc. Conf. 2–6. April 1994 Baltimore), Paper No.8552, RSK/GPR, Recommendation on the Design of Future Nuclear Power Plants , 1994
KTA(Kerntechnischer Ausschuss, Germany), Design of nuclear power plants against seismic impacts, Part A: (KTA 2201.1) 1975; Part 2: (2201.2) 1981, Part 3: (KTA 2201.3) 1980
Kos, M., A seismic palnt construction; fundaments and applications, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, Tokyo, 1983
Lewis, E.E., Nuclear power reactor safety, John Wiley+Sons, New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, 1977
Kuhlman, A., Introduction into the science of safety, F.Vieweg+Sohn, Verlag TÜV Rheinland, 1981
International Atomic Energy Agency, Quality Assurance for Safety in Nuclear Power Plants and other Nuclear Installations, Code and Safety Guides Q1 –Q14, Safety Standards Series No.50-C/SG-Q, IAEA Vienna, 1996
International Atomic Energy Agency, Evaluation of Seismic Hazards for Nuclear Power Plants, Safety Standards Series No.Ns-G-3.3, IAEA Vienna, 2002
IAEA, Seismic evaluation of existing nuclear power plants, Safety Reports Series, No.28, IAEA, Vienna, 2003
Eichholz, G.G., Environmental aspects of nuclear power, Ann Arbor Science Publishers Inc., Ann Arbor, 1976
Schneider, G., Earthquakes, formation, dispersion, effects, F. Enke Verlag, Stuttgart, 1975
KTA-Regulations (Germany), Design of nuclear power plants against seismic events, Part I, Fundamental Principles, KTA2201.1, June 1990
Koch, E.H., Principles of earthquakes safe design of nuclear power plants, VGB Kraftwerkstechnik, 59, Jan. 1979
Kröger, W., Nuclear power plants near consumers under the aspects of nuclear safety, JÜL-2103, Nov. 1986
IAEA, Extreme external events in the design and assessment of nuclear power plant, IAEA-TECDOC-1341, Vienna, Mar. 2003
Kemter, F.; Schmidt, G., Seismic behavior of pebble bed cores, SMIRT, Brussel, 1985
Bodmann, E.; Kleine-Tebbe, A., The mechanical behavior of the core of a high temperature reactor under seismic loads, Atomkernenergie, Kerntechnik, Vol.47, Noc.3, 1987
Snoj, L.; Rawnik, M., Effect of packing fraction variations on the ε factor in pebble bed nuclear reactors, Kerntechnik, 71, 4, 2006
Wolters J., Kröger W., et al., About accident in the HTR-Module – a trend analysis, JŰL-Spez-260, June 1984
Mertens J., et al., Safety analysis for the behavior of the HTR-Module in case of accidents, JŰL-Spez-335, Nov. 1985
Wolters J., et al., Analysis of accidents of HTR 100 – a risk oriented analysis, JŰL-Spez-477, Dec. 1988
Kröger W., Wolters J., Analysis of behavior of HTR 500 in accidents: a trend analysis, JŰL-Spez 220, Sept. 1983
KFA-ISF, Methodology of comprehensive safety analysis for future HTR concepts: a status report (several volumes, status 1986, JŰL-Spez-388, 1987/1988
GRS, Risk guidelines for pressurized reactor (German Reactor Safety Commission), 3rd Edition, Oct. 1981
Bayer A., et al., The German risk study: accident consequence model and results of the study, Nuclear Technology 59, 1982
German government, Guidelines for the evaluation of the layout of nuclear power plants with pressurized water reactors against accidents in the sense of §28, Abs. 3 Radiation Protection – Accident Guidelines; Bundesauzeigen (Heransg: Buucle uninisterdes, Justiz), Dec. 1983
United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Safety goals for the operation of nuclear power plants, USNRC Policy Statement, Aug. 1986
Schenk W., Nabielek, High temperature reactor fuel fission product release and distribution at 1600°C, Nuclear Technology 96, 1991
Schenk W., Nabielek H., High temperature reactor fuel fission product release and distribution at 1600°C, Nuclear Technology 96, 1991 and Schenk W., Verfondern K.L., Nabielek H., Toscana E.H., Limits of LEU TRISO particle performance, Proceedings of HTR-TN International HTR Fuel Seminar, Brussels, Belgium, Feb. 2011
Bäumer R., Kalinowski I., THTR commissioning and operating experience, 11th International Conference on the HTGR, Dimitrovgrad, June 1985
Verfondern K.L., Nabielek H., et al., A computer program to predict the share of broken particles of TRISO coated particles at accident conditions, JŰL-Spez 298, Feb. 1985
Pott G., et al., Operational and accidental behavior of HTR fuel elements, in: Status Seminar on High-Temperature Reactor Fuel Cycle, JŰL-Conf 61, Aug. 1987
Von der Decken C.B., Wawrzik U., Dust and activity behavior, in: AVR-Experimental High Temperature Reactor, 21 years of successful operation for a future energy technology, VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf, 1990
Breitbach G., Walters J., Gas exchange between the primary circuit and the reactor containment of a high-temperature reactor, Report of KFA Jülich, 1980
Breitbach G., David H.P., et al., Gas exchange between a helium containing vessel and the environment via a downward directed tube and the relevance for the HTR-Module, JŰL-Spez 273, Sept. 1984
Iniotakis N., Von der Deckeu C.B., Röllis K., Sohlesinga H.J., Plateout of fission products and its effect on maintenance and repairs, Nuclear Engineering and Design 78, 1984
Walters J., Breitbach G., David P.H., Verfondern K.L., Fission product release from the plant in case of accidents, in: Mertens J. et al, Safety Technical Analysis for the Accidental Behavior of HTR-Module, JŰL-Spez 335, Nov. 1985
Program system UFOMOD, in: Kröger W., Nuclear power plants in the neighborhood of consumers from the standpoint of safety, JŰL-2103, Nov. 1986
GRS, German risk study nuclear power plants, phase A: an analysis of the risk caused by accidents, Verlag Tür Rheinland, Köln, 1980
GRS, German risk study nuclear power plants, phase B: a summarizing representation, GRS-72, June 1989
Rasmussen N.C., Reactor study – an assessment of accident risks in US commercial nuclear power plants, United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, WASH 1400/NUREG 75/014, Oct. 1975
NN, Special issue, Safety study for HTR concepts under German site conditions, JŰL-Spez 136, 1981
Takada, J., Nuclear hazards in the world, Kodansha, Springer, Tokyo, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2005
Eisenbud, M., Environmental radioactivity, Academic Press, New York, London, 1986
Sauter, E., Fundaments of radiation protection, Verlag Karl Thiemig AG, München, 1983
Bonka, H., Lectures on radiation protection, Technical University of Aachen, 2008
GRS, Gesellschaft für Reaktorsicherheit, Risk study for nuclear power plants, phase B, June 1989
Kessler, G.; Faude, D.; Ehrhardt, J., Safety concept of today introduced light water reactors, KFK-Nachrichten, 25, Nr.1, 1993
H. Schrader, Analysis of extreme impacts from outside on a nuclear facility, Study, RWTH Aachen, April 2005
Barthels, H.; Schürenkrämer, M., The effective heat conductivity in pebble bed arrangements regarding the special conditions of high temperature reactors, JÜL-1893, Feb. 1984
Breitbach, G., Heat transport in pebble bed system with special emphasis on radiation, JÜL-1564, Dec. 1978
Robold, K., Heat transport in the inner and outer regions of pebble beds, JÜL-1796, July 1982
Schack, A., The industrial heat transfer, Verlag Stahleisen mbH, Düsseldorf, 1969
Interatom Kraftwerksunion AG, High temperature-Module-power plant, Vol.1–3, Safety Report, Jan. 1984
Schneider, U.; Diederichs, U., Physical properties of concrete from 20℃ up to melting, Part 1and 2, Betonwerk+Fertigteil Technik, Heft 3/81, Heft 4/81, 1981
Altes, J. et al., Behavior of the prestressed concrete pressure vessel of the HTR 500 at severe accident temperatures, Trans.10 SmiRT, Arnheim, Vol.H. 1989
Altes, J.; Escherich, K.; Nickel, H.; Wolters, J., Experimental study of the behavior of the prestressed concrete pressure vessel of the THTR-300 at severe accident temperatures, Trans.10 SmiRT, Tokyo, Vol.H, 1991
Altes, J.; Breitbach, G.; Escherich, K.H.; Hahn, T.; Nickel, H.; Wolters, J., Experimental study of the behavior of the prestressed concrete pressure vessels of high temperature reactors at accident temperatures, Trans.9 SmiRT, Lausanne, Vol.H, 1987
Teuchert, E.; Rütten, H.J.; Haas, K.A., Numerical analysis of the HTR-module, JÜL-2618, May 1992
Gerwin, H., The two dimensional reactor dynamics program TINTE; part 2; applications, JÜL-2266, Febr. 1989
Scherer,W.; Gerwin,H.; Kindt, T.; Patcher,W., Analysis of reactivity and temperature transient experiments at the AVR high temperature reactor, Nuclear Science and Engineering, 97,1987
Analysis of Transients Tests on HTR Fuel at Hydro and IGR, Kurchatow Institute, Moscow, 1994
NN., Nuclear Safety, Technical progress Journal special issue on reactivity initiated accidents, Vol 37, No4, Oct-Dec 1996
Siemens/Interatom, High temperature module power plant, Safety report,Vol.1–3,1988
Bartknecht W., Explosions, progress and safety measures, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1978
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Tsinghua University Press, Beijing and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kugeler, K., Zhang, Z. (2019). Safety Aspects and Analysis of Accidents. In: Modular High-temperature Gas-cooled Reactor Power Plant. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-57712-7_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-57712-7_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-662-57710-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-662-57712-7
eBook Packages: EnergyEnergy (R0)