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The “Snake” Nebula G11.11–0.12

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The Earliest Stages of Massive Clustered Star Formation: Fragmentation of Infrared Dark Clouds

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Abstract

This chapter presents SMA \(\lambda \, {=}\, 0.88\) and 1.3 mm broad-band observations, and JVLA observations in \(\mathrm {NH_3}\) \((J,K)=\) (1,1) up to (5,5), H\(_2\)O and CH\(_3\)OH maser lines toward the two most massive molecular clumps in IRDC G11.11–0.12, also known as the “Snake” nebula. Sensitive high-resolution images reveal hierarchical fragmentation in dense molecular gas from the \(\sim \)1 pc clump scale down to \(\sim \)0.01 pc condensation scale. At each scale, the mass of the fragments is orders of magnitude larger than the Jeans mass. This is common to all four IRDC clumps we studied, suggesting that turbulence plays an important role in the early stages of clustered star formation. Masers, shock heated \(\mathrm {NH_3}\) gas, and outflows indicate intense ongoing star formation in some cores while no such signatures are found in others. Furthermore, chemical differentiation may reflect the difference in evolutionary stages among these star formation seeds. A similar chemical differentiation is also found in clumps and condensations. We find \(\mathrm {NH_3}\) ortho/para ratios of \(1.1\pm 0.4\), \(2.0\pm 0.4\), and \(3.0\pm 0.7\) associated with three outflows, and the ratio tends to increase along the outflows downstream. Our combined SMA and JVLA observations of several IRDC clumps present the most in depth view so far of the early stages prior to the hot core phase, revealing snapshots of physical and chemical properties at various stages along an apparent evolutionary sequence, subject to further tests by detailed modelling.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The Submillimeter Array is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica.

  2. 2.

    http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/~cqi/mircook.html.

  3. 3.

    http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/sma/miriad, http://www.astro.umd.edu/~teuben/miriad .

  4. 4.

    http://casa.nrao.edu.

  5. 5.

    The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.

  6. 6.

    Particle number density \(n\) and mass density \(\rho \) are related as \(\rho = \mu m_\mathrm {H} n\), where \(\mu = 2.37\) is the mean molecular weight per “free particle” (H\(_2\) and He, the number of metal particles is negligible). We use particle number density throughout this chapter. Note this is different to the H\(_2\) number density which counts hydrogen molecules only and thus a higher molecular weight of 2.8 should be applied. See discussion in Kauffmann et al. (2008). For a molecular cloud made with \(N(\mathrm {H})/N(\mathrm {He}) = 10\) and negligible metals, \(n_{\mathrm {particle}}:n_{\mathrm {H_2}} = 1.2\).

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Wang, K. (2015). The “Snake” Nebula G11.11–0.12. In: The Earliest Stages of Massive Clustered Star Formation: Fragmentation of Infrared Dark Clouds. Springer Theses. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44969-1_4

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