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The 1980s and Early 1990s, Research on Foundations Takes Off

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The Quantum Dissidents

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Abstract

The 1980s were transitional times for foundations, moving from an early fringe position to mainstream physics. In the 1990s it would undergo more profound change, becoming part of the blossoming and promising field of quantum information. Different from previous times, the 1980s had a more diversified research agenda. New foundation experiments enabled by new techniques flourished and Bell’s theorem experiments were resumed. New interpretations appeared and old ones were renewed. Theoretical breakthroughs were made in at least two different areas: the transition from the quantum description to the classical description through the idea of decoherence, and the early ideas related to the use of quantum physics to improve computers and computer science. Even without a thematic focus, however, the 1980s and the early 1990s were distinctive as being the years when technical advances made the implementation of different thought experiments possible. In the early 1990s, all the ingredients for the later emergence of quantum information were already present.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    A. Aspect, interviewed by the author and I. Silva, 16 Dec 2010 and 19 Jan 2011, American Institute of Physics, College Park, MD; AIP hereafter.

  2. 2.

    The 1985 Horne and Zeilinger paper was prepared for a conference in Finland dedicated to the 50th anniversary of the EPR paper. This was the first Zeilinger paper to deal with Bell’s theorem. Interview with Michael Horne, by Joan Bromberg, 12 Sep, 2002, AIP. Interview with Anton Zeilinger, by Olival Freire, 30 June 2014, AIP.

  3. 3.

    On Braginsky’s biography and his collaboration with American physicists on the issue of detecting gravitational waves, see Braginsky, Vladimir B. Interview by Shirley K. Cohen. Pasadena, California, January 15, 1997. Oral History Project, California Institute of Technology Archives. Retrieved on April 12, 2014 from the World Wide Web: http://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechOH:OH_Braginsky_V.

  4. 4.

    Interview of Yanhua Shih and Morton Rubin by Joan Bromberg on 14 May 2001, AIP. Interview with Carroll Alley by Joan Bromberg on 16 May 2006, AIP.

  5. 5.

    Ibid. Yanhua Shih’s professional career was twice affected by the turmoil in his home country, China. Due to the Cultural Revolution he went to university late and eventually graduated in physics from the Northwestern University, in Xi’an, and went to the University of Maryland to do his PhD. On completion, while preparing to return to China, the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 took place. He decided not to return as he was informed he was on a blacklist due to his activities at the Chinese graduate student organization and looked for a job in the U.S. Shih was hired by the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, to reinforce a fresh doctoral program in physics, and he settled there for the rest of his scientific career. Interview of Yanhua Shih by Olival Freire and Joan Bromberg on 28 May 2014, AIP.

  6. 6.

    On the history of GHZ theorem, see Greenberger (2002); interview with Michael Horne, by Joan Bromberg, 12 September 12, 2002, AIP; and interview with Anton Zeilinger, by Olival Freire, 30 June 2014, AIP.

  7. 7.

    The second paper contains a more detailed presentation of the GHZ theorem, its proof, and suggests possible experiments, including momentum and energy correlations among three and more photons produced through PDC.

  8. 8.

    Interview with Michael Horne, by Joan Bromberg, 12 Sep 2002, AIP. Interview with Anton Zeilinger, by Olival Freire, 30 June and 2 July 2014, AIP.

  9. 9.

    In fact, there already was some competition around the most general proof of the theorem between on the one hand, Greenberger, Horne, and Zeilinger and on the other hand, Clifton, Redhead, and Butterfield. This competition is recorded in the paper by Clifton et al. (1991), on a “note added in prof”, on p. 182.

  10. 10.

    Anton Zeilinger, interviewed by Olival Freire, ibid.

  11. 11.

    De Martini’s challenge and Zeilinger’s answer are in Physics World, “Teleportation: who was first?” 01 Mar 1998, pp. 23–24).

  12. 12.

    Gisin’s biographical information was drawn from Nicolas Gisin, interviewed by Olival Freire Jr, 2 Dec 2013, AIP. Bell’s quantum engineer episode is also reported in Gisin (2002).

  13. 13.

    http://www.wolffund.org.il/index.php?dir=site&page=winners&name=&prize=3016&year=2010&field=3008. Accessed on 18 Sep 2013.

  14. 14.

    Emphasis is in the original.

  15. 15.

    Fábio Freitas, “Tony Leggett – Challenging Quantum Mechanics with Quantum Mechanics,” unpublished paper, 2012.

  16. 16.

    1,353 citations on April 7, 2014. Source: Web of Science.

  17. 17.

    All data from Web of Science were accessed on April 7, 2014.

  18. 18.

    This paragraph is based on Freitas, 2012, op. cit. This paper draws Leggett’s biographical information from his Nobel Prize biography and interviews with Leggett by Babak Ashraf on 25 March 2005 and Fábio Freitas, on 3 Aug 2011.

  19. 19.

    1,400; 2,466; 1,526; and 381 citations, respectively, till April 7, 2014, according to Web of Science.

  20. 20.

    On the collaboration with Brazilian physicists, see Serge Haroche, interviewed by O. Freire, on 27 Feb 2004, AIP.

  21. 21.

    http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/, accessed on April 7, 2014.

  22. 22.

    The paragraphs on Zeh come from my paper “Quantum Dissidents …”, Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics, 40, 280–289, 2009.

  23. 23.

    The original version, [“Probleme der Quantentheorie”, in German], may be found at http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/~as3/. Franco Bassani to H. D. Zeh, 3 Oct 1968, with an appended referee’s report; Boschke to Zeh, 3 Oct 1968; I obtained copies of these letters due to the kindness of H. D. Zeh and F. Freitas.

  24. 24.

    H. D. Zeh, interviewed by Fabio Freitas, 2008.

  25. 25.

    “Ich mach es zu einer Lebensregel, so weit vermeidlich auf keinen Zeh zu treten, aber der Empfang eines von einem gewissen Dr. Zeh aus Ihrem Institut verfassten preprint veranlasst mich von dieser Regel abzuweichen. Ich habe allen Grund anzunehmen, dass ein solches Konzentrat wildesten Unsinnes nicht mit Ihrem Segen in die Welt verbreitet ist, und ich glaube Ihnen von Dienst zu sein, indem ich Ihre Aufmerksamkeit auf dieses Unglück richte.” L. Rosenfeld to J. H. D. Jensen, 14 Feb 1968. Next Jensen tried to attenuate Rosenfeld’s reaction, while fearing for its consequences: “I hope, that he does not quite have his reputation ruined,” Jensen to Rosenfeld, 1 March 1968. Rosenfeld then considered Zeh’s case in a “somewhat favorable light” though still considering Zeh’s paper “more like a possession claim of a monopoly of highest wisdom” than “as an invitation to a factual discussion,” Rosenfeld to Jensen, 6 March 1968. The affair occupied three more letters between Rosenfeld and Jensen: Jensen to Rosenfeld, 10 Apr 1968; 9 May 1968; Rosenfeld to Jensen, 25 Apr 1968. Rosenfeld Papers, Niels Bohr Archive, Copenhagen. I am indebted to Anja Jacobsen and Felicity Pors for recovering these letters and Christian Joas for the German translation.

  26. 26.

    H. D. Zeh, interviewed by Fabio Freitas, 2008, op. cit.

  27. 27.

    H. D. Zeh to J. A. Wheeler, 30 Oct 1980, Wheeler Papers, Series II, Box Wo-Ze, folder Zeh, WP.

  28. 28.

    Questionnaire sent to Zeh by David Edge, circa 1976. I am grateful to H. D. Zeh and F. Freitas for allowing me to consult this document.

  29. 29.

    H. D. Zeh, interviewed by Fabio Freitas, 2008, op. cit.

  30. 30.

    The text on Leggett is entirely based on Fabio Freitas, “Tony Leggett - Challenging Quantum Mechanics with Quantum Mechanics,” unpublished paper, 2012. This paper draws information on Leggett from his Nobel Prize biography (http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2003/leggett-bio.html), his Nobel lecture (http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2003/leggett-lecture.html), and interviews by Babak Ashraf on 25 March 2005 and Fábio Freitas, on 3 Aug 2011.

  31. 31.

    See Leggett’s Nobel lecture, on page 147, http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2003/leggett-lecture.html, accessed on April 10, 2014.

  32. 32.

    http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2003/leggett-bio.html, accessed on April 10, 2014.

  33. 33.

    Ibid.

  34. 34.

    Freitas’ point is far more substantiated than the summary I have done. See Freitas, ibid.

  35. 35.

    Serge Haroche, interviewed by Olival Freire, 27 Feb 2004, AIP.

  36. 36.

    All Haroche’s quotations in this section come from the same paper (Haroche 2008).

  37. 37.

    Cohen-Tannoudji’s course is at http://www.phys.ens.fr/~Claude%20Cohen-Tannoudji/college-de-france/1979-80/cours1/cours1.pdf, accessed on 9 May 2014.

  38. 38.

    Alain Aspect, interview with O. Freire & I. Silva, 16 Dec 2010 and 19 Jan 2011, AIP.

  39. 39.

    The film is available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oxknfn97vFE, accessed on 15 April 2014.

  40. 40.

    I am thankful to Aurino Ribeiro Filho for this remark.

  41. 41.

    In 1967, Wheeler wrote to Max Born: “You are one of the few persons who have contributed through your work and through your leadership to the elucidation of both general relativity and the quantum principles. […]. Which of these two principles do you rank as the ‘deepest’?” Born’s answer was disappointing, “… I am afraid I am too old (85) to understand it.” Wheeler to Born, 29 Sep 1967; Born to Wheeler, 17 Oct 1967. Wheeler Papers, Series I – Box Boh-Bu, Folder Born, M., American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

  42. 42.

    Wheeler to A. O. Barut, 23 Oct 1973, Wheeler Papers, Series I – Box Ba-Bog, Folder Barut, A. Ibid.

  43. 43.

    Wheeler Papers, Series V, Notebook June 1973–April 1974. Ibid.

  44. 44.

    For some of these interpretations, larger introductions can be found at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, at http://plato.stanford.edu/.

  45. 45.

    Historian and philosopher of science Yehuda Elkana (1984, p. 503) remarked, with irony: “An open-minded, fair-thinking, egalitarian, liberal philosopher will generally tend to designate himself a realist or a scientific realist. This is ‘a good thing’ to be. Idealist attitudes like positivism, operationalism, behaviorism are nowadays mostly rejected by philosophers of science and are contraposited to realism. Relativism, though not necessarily an idealist position, is also considered to be the opposite of realism, and is generally talked of as ‘the threat.’”

  46. 46.

    I draw from this paper to present the consistent history approach. It analyzes the extent to which this approach can be considered a new orthodoxy.

  47. 47.

    This issue is presented in Chap. 7.

  48. 48.

    For a detailed presentation of the GRW theory, see Ghirardi, GianCarlo, “Collapse Theories”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL: http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/qm-collapse/, accessed on 16 April 2014.

  49. 49.

    Maximilian Schlosshauer (2011, pp. 63–64) does not cite the Duhem-Quine thesis, but his analysis suggests its very content: “Such an irreducible plurality of interpretations would tell us that we’re free to embellish—some may say encumber—the formalism with entities of our choice, if such a maneuver helps us visualize what’s going on, but that in doing so we’ll be crossing into strictly metaphysical terrain. And if we follow such a reading to its logical (if radical) conclusion, then quantum theory might even contain a lesson about the task of physics: that the search for ‘what the world is made of,’ for a unique, definitive, fundamental ontology at the heart of everything, may be ultimately misguided.”

  50. 50.

    These constraints are derived from the Clifton–Bub–Halvorson theorem, see Bub (2005).

  51. 51.

    Weisskopf’s statement is published in the proceedings of the International Colloquium on the History of Particle Physics, 21–23 July 1982, Paris, Journal de Physique, Colloque 8, Suppl. 12, 1982, on p. 422. I am thankful to Thiago Hartz for bringing this quotation to my attention.

  52. 52.

    Web of Science, consulted on 17 April 2014.

  53. 53.

    Source: Web of Science, accessed on 21 April 2014. This survey shows one of the caveats to take into account while taking data from this source. The 1984 paper by Bennett and Brassard, which opened the subject for research, is not listed in this survey probably because it was presented at a conference. Publishing original papers at conferences is usual in some fields, including computer science. The Web of Science is trying to fix the issue but its coverage still has shortcomings like this.

  54. 54.

    This presentation of the early works in quantum information is far from comprehensive. We have not presented, for instance, the contributions by Lov Grover, Benjamin Schumacher and Stephen Wiesner, all from the mid-1990s, the end of the period we are analyzing. We suggest the paper written by Chen-Pang Yeang (2011), which is the first historical account of the emergence of this field, meaningfully titled “Engineering Entanglement, Conceptualizing Quantum Information,” and the book by Nielsen and Chuang (2010), which is a conceptual introduction to the subject.

  55. 55.

    Ibid. Still, another caveat about the accuracy of scientometric data. The 1993 quantum teleportation paper, written by Bennett and colleagues, has collected till now more than 5,646 citations, but it did not appear in this survey, probably because it did not explicitly use the term “quantum information” in its abstract.

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Freire Junior, O. (2015). The 1980s and Early 1990s, Research on Foundations Takes Off. In: The Quantum Dissidents. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44662-1_8

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