Abstract
The political and cultural unrest of the late 1960s influenced the debate on quantum physics by helping those who wanted to push research on foundations from the margins to mainstream physics. The Italian Physical Society was at risk to split apart due to political dissensions in the universities, and the president at the time, Toraldo di Francia, thought that bringing a controversial scientific topic to the forefront might stall the split. Franco Selleri’s proposal to dedicate the 1970 Varenna summer school to the foundations of quantum mechanics was accepted and Bernard d’Espagnat was invited to head it and set diplomatic rules for managing the controversy. Varenna was the Woodstock of quantum dissidents. Wigner made the keynote address and different interpretations for quantum theory were presented. Shimony and Bell spoke on experiments for testing locality and quantum mechanics. Zeh presented what would be later called the decoherence approach to the measurement problem. The quantum dissidents left political dissidence aside to concentrate on the quantum controversy. Later on, political dissidence escalated in European physics settings while on the other side of the Atlantic, the editor of Physics Today, under pressure from those who wanted the American Physical Society to rally against the Vietnam War, decided to feature less controversial topics. Bryce DeWitt was invited to publish a paper on the many interpretations of quantum mechanics, including Everett’s many worlds interpretation. A huge debate erupted in the magazine after DeWitt’s paper. In this chapter we will show how physicists exploited the political climate of the late 1960s to push for changes in the science establishment, including its research agenda.
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Notes
- 1.
The books analyzed were Misner, Thorne, and Wheeler’s Gravitation and Capra’s The Tao of Physics.
- 2.
Amaldi reports, in Amaldi et al. (1998, pp. 244–246 and 285–286), the creation of the Varenna summer school, the reorganization of the Italian Physical Society, and the journal Il Nuovo Cimento. His account emphasizes the role of Giovanni Polvani, as the new president of the society, in all these initiatives and how he was inspired by the creation of the Les Houches summer school in Theoretical Physics by the French physicist Cécile Morette (later C. DeWitt-Morette). On the role played by the Varenna summer schools, in the 1950s and 1960s, see also Schweber (2014).
- 3.
Augusto Shantena Sabbadini to the author, e-mail, 18 Jan 2011. Toraldo di Francia, interview with Olival Freire, Florence, 01 July 2003, deposited at the Center for History of Physics – American Institute of Physics, College Park, MD.
- 4.
“Je suppose aussi qu’il y avait, en provenance de ‘la base’, une certaine demande de mise en question des idées reçues. C’était en soixante-dix, c’est-à-dire, à une époque de pas mal d’agitation politique et intellectuelle. Et, en Italie comme en France, il y avait des jeunes physiciens qui contestaient. Cela a peut-être joué son rôle.” Bernard d’Espagnat, interviewed by the author, Paris, 26 Oct 2001, Niels Bohr Library & Archives, American Institute of Physics, College Park, MD [AIP hereafter]. D’Espagnat made these comments without being asked about this kind of background.
- 5.
Tito Tonietti to the author, e-mail, 19 Jan 2011. Messiah is a reference to the classical quantum physics textbook written by the French physicist Albert Messiah (1961).
- 6.
Angelo Baracca, e-mail to the author, 17 Jan 2011.
- 7.
Franco Selleri, interview with Olival Freire, Bari, 24 June 2003, deposited at AIP.
- 8.
In the 1970s, the Italian scholars who were Marxism-inclined and involved with the quantum controversy reproduced the same divide from the early 1950s, a divergence we examined in Chap. 2. Thus, contrasting with Selleri, the philosopher Silvano Tagliagambe, supported by Ludovico Geymonat, published a translation of the relevant Soviet papers on the quantum controversy with an analysis favorable to Fock’s stand. Tagliagambe’s work, however, apparently did not influence the physicists who were interested in the quantum controversy and himself, after a while, moved towards different subjects. See Tagliagambe (1972) and Freire Jr. (2011).
- 9.
Franco Selleri, interview with Olival Freire, ibid.
- 10.
Toraldo di Francia, op. cit.
- 11.
Russo, Arturo. (2007). Writing the history of modern physics in Italy: a personal reflection. In S. Boudia, D. Pestre, and S. Soubiran (orgs.), ‘Writing the History’ of the Physical Sciences after 1945: state of the art, questions, and perspectives, Strasbourg, 7–9 June 2007; unpublished papers for private circulation. I am indebted to Xavier Roqué for bringing Russo’s paper to my attention. The proceedings of “Science in the capitalistic society” are in Società Italiana di Fisica (1971). Charles Weiner to Toraldo di Francia, 17 June 1971. Archives of the Italian Physical Society [ASIF hereafter], Bologna.
- 12.
Some readers may inquire about bringing together Judt and Hobsbawm as commentators of the same events, given their ideological opposite stances. I may defend my procedure citing Hobsbawm’s obituary of Judt in which the book I am quoting—Postwar—is highly appreciated. See “After the Cold War - Eric Hobsbawm remembers Tony Judt”, London Review of Books, 34(8), 26 April 2012, p. 14; available at http://www.lrb.co.uk/v34/n08/eric-hobsbawm/after-the-cold-war, accessed on 10 April 2014. I am thankful to Thiago Hartz for bringing this obituary to my attention.
- 13.
For studies related to the upheavals in Italy, see also Cento Bull and Giorgio (2006).
- 14.
d’Espagnat’s diplomatic skills, however, were not enough to keep Léon Rosenfeld on the list of lecturers, as we have discussed in Chap. 4.
- 15.
d’Espagnat to Wheeler, 27 Apr 1977, Wheeler Papers, Series II—Box DE, folder d’Espagnat. “Tolerate difference” and references to the discussions are in Wheeler’s notebook, pp. 145–149. Idem, Series V, Notebook October 1976–December 1977. Wheeler Papers, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, PA (WP hereafter). Bernard d’Espagnat, interviewed by the author, 26 Oct 2001, op. cit., AIP.
- 16.
Anders Barany to the author, e-mail, 13 Jan 2011.
- 17.
Idem.
- 18.
Michael Drieschner to the author, e-mail, 24 Jan 2011.
- 19.
Dieter Zeh to the author, e-mail, 15 Jan 2011.
- 20.
Anders Barany, op. cit.
- 21.
Basil Hiley to the author, e-mail, 22 Jan 2011.
- 22.
Emilio Santos to the author, e-mail, 19 Jan 2011.
- 23.
Andor Frenkel to the author, e-mail, 13 May 2011.
- 24.
Giovanni Prosperi to the author, e-mail, 28 Jan 2011.
- 25.
Tito Tonietti, op. cit.
- 26.
“D’après lui, en effet, une tendance se serait manifestée dans votre Société, ayant pour but d’associer intimement aux activités scientifiques des activités d’un autre ordre.” Bernard d’Espagnat to Toraldo di Francia, 03 Sep 1970. ASIF.
- 27.
“Les directeurs des cours de Varenna ont été, toujours, les derniers juges de ce que doivent contenir les compte-rendus et votre cas ne fait pas d’exception. D’ailleurs, si il est vrai que dans notre Société la tendance à ne s’occuper pas seulement de questions techniques est de plus en plus forte et très bien justifiée, il est neanmoins certain que par ‘Fondements de la mécanique quantique’ nous entendons les fondements de la mécanique quantique. Et tel est le titre du volume de compte-rendus qui va être publié. J’espère d’avoir dissipé comme ça vos perplexities.” di Francia to d’Espagnat, 16 Sep 1970; d’Espagnat to di Francia, 22 Sep 1970, emphasis in the originals; all letters in the ASIF.
- 28.
Tarozzi and van der Merwe (2004). The following citations and information come from Franco Selleri, interviewed by Olival Freire, 2003, op. cit.
- 29.
“I always thought […] that it is our duty to build a science that can be communicated to everybody. And at those times I was thinking in terms of the working class, the working people. That is to say, if the only way to understand what I’m doing is to study differential equations or Hilbert space, […] there is too high a threshold. If instead I build physics in three-dimensional space and in time according to the rules of causality then I can communicate my results.” Franco Selleri, interviewed by Olival Freire, idem.
- 30.
All quotations from Franco Selleri, interviewed by Olival Freire, ibid.
- 31.
The historian David Cassidy makes an analysis of the cultural unrest of the late 1960s and its influence on the history of physics with some similarities with the Italian case we are presenting. According to Cassidy (2011b, p. 141), “in the critical social environment of the day, historians and sociologists began to dismantle the apolitical, asocial, amoral ideology regarding the disinterested, value-free purity of physics,” and yet, “The utilization of social perspectives, historian Paul Forman argued at the time, was essential to achieving intellectual independence from physicists’ constructs and practices.” See also Cassidy (2011a). On Russo, see Russo (2007), unpublished, op. cit.
- 32.
On Rosenfeld, see Jacobsen (2012). On the absence of Kuhn and Forman, see Charles Weiner, cable, 19 Feb 1972, ASIF. The following Brazilians were enrolled in this course: Amélia Império Hamburger, Enio Frota da Silveira, Penha Maria Cardoso Dias, Ernst Hamburger, and Ennio Candotti. The Hamburger couple were prevented from participating by the Brazilian military dictatorship (1964–1985) as they were then on trial for political offences. Promemoria per la SIF – Elenco dei candidati accettati per Il 3° corso di Varenna; Amélia e Ernst Hamburger, cable, 27 June 1972; Amélia and Ernst Hamburger to Toraldo di Francia, 26 July 1972; ASIF.
- 33.
For Lévy-Leblond’s early interest in the foundations of physics, see the debate among Michel LeBellac, Jean-Pierre Vigier, François Lurçat, Pierre Lehmann, and himself in Clarté (n° 53, pp. 14–43, Janvier 1964), which was the magazine of the French Communist Student Union. Talk with the author, Nice, 5 November 2012.
- 34.
Jean-Marc Lévy-Leblond to G. Jona-Lasinio, 28 June 1972, ASIF.
- 35.
Joan Bromberg to the author, e-mail, 28 Jan 2011.
- 36.
The manifesto is reprinted in “The War Physicists”, a volume with documents from the manifestations organized and published by Bruno Vitale (1976). Parts of the manifesto are translated into French in Jaubert and Lévy-Leblond (1973, pp. 186–187). These two sources are good repositories of original documents related to the political unrest of the late 1960s and early 1970s. Gell-Mann’s episode at the Collège de France, Drell’s at Cargese, and the events in Trieste and Varenna are recorded, under the title “European Confrontation Spoils Jason’s Summer Vacation,” in the American magazine Science for the People, 4(6), 9–14, 1972. The creation of the Science for the People movement will be presented later. I am thankful to Virgile Besson for calling my attention to this record.
- 37.
For documents related to that demonstration, see “The War Physicists” (Vitale 1976, pp. 100–143). See also the report in the French newspaper Le Monde on 30 September 1972.
- 38.
For a review of Moore’s book, see Harper (2009).
- 39.
H. B. G. Casimir to J-M Lévy-Leblond, 04 Sep 1972, published in “The War Physicists” (Vitale 1976, p. 97).
- 40.
Hans Bethe to Bruno Vitale, letter, 12 September 1972, published in The War, op. cit. pp. 120–121.
- 41.
J-M Lévy-Leblond to John Wheeler, 13 May 1974; Lévy-Leblond to Michel Paty, 18 Feb 1974, J. A. Wheeler Papers, Series I – Box L, folder Lévy-Leblond, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
- 42.
See Moore (2008) and references therein.
- 43.
C. Schwartz to R. Hobart Ellis Jr, 28 May 1967, Physics Today Papers, Correspondence 1948–1970, Box 20, AIP.
- 44.
Soon after the creation of this organization it began to publish a bi-monthly magazine with the same title, Science for the People. Later the organization changed its name to Science and Engineers for Social and Political Action (SESPA). The magazine was published from 1970 until the late 1980s. It provides a window to analyze how deep, wide, and entrenched the radical criticism to science was in the US in those times. On the events leading to the creation of the Science for the People organization, including quotations, see Moore (2008, pp. 133–157). A report on its first decade is Greeley and Tafler (1980).
- 45.
C. Schwartz, “censorship”, in Physics Today 19, August, 9–10. C. Schwartz, “political censorship”, in Interview of Charles Schwartz by Finn Aaserud on 15 May 1987, AIP. R. Hobart Ellis Jr. to Bernard Dixon, 30 Oct 1969, and R. Hobart Ellis Jr. to Ernst Brüche, 21 Oct 1968, Physics Today Division Records, 1948–1970, Boxes 18 and 20, respectively, AIP.
- 46.
Interview of Charles Schwartz, op. cit. Interview of Brian Schwartz by Patrick McCray on 10 Aug 2001, AIP.
- 47.
Physics Today, August 1969, p. 21. R. Hobart Ellis Jr. to R. B. Lindsay, 01 March 1968; R. Hobart Ellis Jr. to G. T. Trammell, 26 March 1968, Physics Today Division Records, 1948-1970, Boxes 20 and 17, respectively, AIP.
- 48.
- 49.
DeWitt to Wheeler, 20 Apr, 1967; Wheeler Papers, Series I—Box Co-De, Folder DeWitt, WP. This letter refers to the paper “Quantum Theory of Gravity” (DeWitt 1967), whose manuscript he had sent to Wheeler's evaluation. In this manuscript, but not in the published version, DeWitt had written: “It is […] clear that the quantum theory of space-time must ultimately force a deviation from the rigid Copenhagen doctrine.” Wheeler circled the rigid Copenhagen doctrine and jotted “unfortunate.” DeWitt also wrote “as conventionally formulated quantum mechanics comes in two packages: (1) formalism and (2) interpretation, the latter being supplied by a licensing office in Copenhagen.” Wheeler jotted “bad tone.” The manuscript is at the Bryce Dewitt's personal files, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX. I am grateful to Thiago Hartz for sharing with me the information about the manuscript. The full background of this story is analyzed by Hartz in the paper “Bryce DeWitt's road to the Many Worlds”, forthcoming.
- 50.
Bryce DeWitt to R. Hobart Ellis Jr, 21 Oct 1969; Hobart Ellis, Jr. to Bryce Dewitt, 24 Oct, 1969. Physics Today Division, Records, 1948–1970, AIP.
- 51.
Evidence about how influential that article was is the fact that nowadays it gathers 126 citations, which is a meaningful figure if one considers that Physics Today is not a technical physics journal. Source: Web of Science, consulted on 17 June 2013. In the 1950s there was only a paper (Margenau 1954) while in the late 1960s papers on Landé’s new book on the interpretation of quantum mechanics appeared [see Shimony (1966), Landé (1967), and Born and Biem (1968)]. There was also a paper by W. E. Lamb (1969).
- 52.
- 53.
- 54.
Wise’s paper was part of an ongoing debate on the historiography of physics involving Wise, Forman, and the reception of Forman’s paper on the quantum physics in Weimar Germany. Unfortunately, however, most of this debate has happened through unpublished papers. On this debate, see Paul Forman, Reflections on the rejection of “Weimar Culture, Causality, and Quantum Theory” by modern and by postmodern historians of science, 2007, unpublished paper. I am thankful to Forman for bringing this paper to my attention.
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Freire Junior, O. (2015). “From the Streets into Academia”: Political Activism and the Reconfiguration of Physics Around 1970. In: The Quantum Dissidents. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44662-1_6
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