Abstract
At about the same time that Thomson (1897) discovered that all atoms emit electrons, photons with energy in the range 1–500 keV, called X-rays, were observed by RÖNTGEN (1896). Photons with energy greater than 500 keV, called gamma (γ) rays, were subsequently observed by Villard (1900). Einstein (1905) then suggested that a photon particle of energy, h v, and zero mass is an electromagnetic wave of frequency, v, and vice versa. The nuclear theory of matter was then introduced by Rutherford (1911, 1914) who proposed that an atom, which has a radius of approximately 10-8 cm, actually consists of a swarm of electrons surrounding a positively charged nucleus whose radius is less than 10-12 cm. The subsequent discovery of the proton by Rutherford and Chadwick (1921) further confirmed the speculation that the nucleus contains positively charged particles. The neutron was then discovered (Chadwick, 1932; Curie and Joliot, 1932) and Heisenberg (1932) proposed that the atomic nucleus contains the neutral neutrons as well as the protons, At about this time, studies of cosmic rays resulted in the discovery of the positron (Anderson, 1932), which differs from the electron only in that its charge is positive. Although similar antiparticles for the proton and neutron were expected on theoretical grounds they were not observed until the advent of large accelerators (Chamberlain et al., 1955) The properties of these early fundamental particles are given in Table 37.
“Certain physical investigations in the past year, make it probable to my mind that some portion of sub-atomic energy is actually being set free in the stars. F. W. Aston’s experiments seem to leave no room for doubt that all the elements are constituted out of hydrogen atoms bound together with negative electrons. The nucleus of the helium atom, for example, consists of four hydrogen atoms bound with two electrons. But Aston has further shown that the mass of the helium atom is less than the sum of the masses of the four hydrogen atoms which enter into it. ... Now mass cannot be annihilated, and the deficit can only represent the energy set free in the transmutation. ... If only five per cent of a star’s mass consists initially of hydrogen atoms, which are gradually being combined to form more complex elements, the total heat liberated will more than suffice for our demands, and we need look no further for the source of a star’s energy. ... If, indeed, the sub-atomic energy in the star is being freely used to maintain their great furnaces, it seems to bring a little nearer to fulfillment our dream of controlling this latent power for the well being of the human race—or for its suicide.”
A. S. Eddington (1920)
“We therefore feel justified in advancing tentatively the hypothesis that cosmic rays are produced in the super-nova process. ... With all reserve we advance the view that a super-nova represents the transition of an ordinary star into a neutron star, consisting mainly of neutrons.”
W. Baade and E Zwicky (1934)
“When the conditions depart widely from being static, there is no necessary tendency towards equipartition, but the energy may instead become enormously concentrated into certain small parts of the system. Thus in the crack of a whip the tip of the lash is moving faster than the speed of sound, though the coachman’s wrist never moves fast at all. Again, when a large sea-wave strikes the wall of a lighthouse, spray is thrown up to a great height, and this in spite of its later rise being much slowed by air resistance. ... It is suggested that cosmic rays may originate from some mechanism of this kind, and though there may be other possibilities, the most obvious source is from the stormy seas that must cover the surface of many of the stars.”
C. Darwin (1949)
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Sparks, W. M., Stecher, T. P.: The result of the death spiral of a white dwarf into a red giant. Ap. J. 188, 149 (1974).
Starrfield, S., Sparks, W. M., Truran, J. W.: Cno abundances and hydrodynamic models of the nova outburst. II. 1.00Mo models with enhanced carbon and oxygen. Ap. J. Suppl. 28, 247 (1974).
Starrfield, S., Sparks, W. M., Truran, J. W.: Cno abundances and hydrodynamic models of the nova outburst. Iii. 0.5 Mo models with enhanced carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen. Ap. J. 192, 647 (1974).
Stothers, R.: A comparison of homogeneous stellar models based on the Cox-Stewart and Carson opacities. Ap. J. 194, 695 (1974).
Stothers, R.: Violation of the Vogt-Russell theorem for homogeneous nondegenerate stars. Ap. J. 194, 699 (1974).
Stothers, R., Chin, C.-W.: Stellar evolution at high mass with semiconvective mixing according to the Ledoux criterion. Ap. J. 198, 407 (1975).
Stothers, R.: Excitation of pulsations in the Cno ionization zone of luminous stars. Ap. J. 204, 853 (1976).
Stothers, R., Chin, C.W.: Stellar evolution at high mass with semiconvective mixing according to the Schwarzschild criterion. Ap. J. 204, 472 (1976).
Stothers, R., Chin, C.W.: Does the upper main sequence extend across the whole H—R diagram? Ap. J. 211, 189 (1977).
Stothers, R., Chin, C.W.: Evolution of helium stars. Ap. J. 216, 61 (1977).
Stothers, R., Chin, C.W.: Stellar evolution at high mass including the effect of a stellar wind. Ap. J. 233, 267 (1979).
Straus, J. M., Blake, J. B., Schramm, D. N.: Effects of convective overshoot on lithium depletion in main-sequence stars. Ap. J. 204, 481 (1976).
Sweigart, A. V.: Do helium-shell flashes cause extensive mixing in low-mass stars ? Ap. J. 189, 289 (1974).
Sweigart, A. V., Gross, P. G.: Horizontal-branch evolution with semiconvection. I. Interior evolution. Ap. J. 190, 101 (1974).
Taam, R. E., Kraft, R. P., Suntzeff, N.: The origin and evolution of RR Lyrae stars of high metal abundance. Ap. J. 207, 201 (1976).
Tarbell, T. D., RooD, R. T.: The triple-alpha rate, screening factors, and the helium flash. Ap. J. 199, 443 (1975).
Tassoul, M.: Nuclear reactions in carbon-rich stars. Ap. J. 202, 755 (1975).
Thorne, K. S., Zytkow, A. N.: Red giants and supergiants with degenerate neutron cores. Ap. J. 199, L 19 (1975).
Tinsley, B. M., Gunn, J. E.: Luminosity functions and the evolution of low-mass population I giants. Ap. J. 206, 525 (1976).
Trimble, V., Reines, F.: The solar neutrino problem—A progress (?) report. Rev. Mod. Phys. 45, 1 (1973).
Trimble, V.: The origin and abundances of the chemical elements. Rev. Mod. Phys. 47, 877 (1975).
Trivedi, B. M. P.: Mass range of supernovae for r-process nucleosynthesis. Ap. J. 225, 209 (1978).
Truran, J. W., Iren, I. Jr.: On s-process nucleosynthesis in thermally pulsing stars. Ap. J. 216, 797 (1977).
Truran, J. W., Cameron, A. G. W.: ‘Al production in explosive carbon burning. Ap. J. 219, 226 (1978).
Truran, J. W., Cowan, J. J., Cameron, A. G. W.: The helium-driven r-process in supernovae. Ap. J. 222, L63 (1978).
Ulrich, R. K.: Solar models with low neutrino fluxes. Ap. J. 188, 369 (1974).
Vila, S. C.: Thermal stability of hydrogen-burning shells in white dwarfs. Ap. J. 217, 171 (1977).
Vlieks, E. A., Morgan, J. F., Blatt, S. L.: Reaction rates of interest in late stages of stellar nucleo-synthesis. Ap. J. 191, 699 (1974).
Wagner, R. L.: Theoretical evolution of extremely metal-poor stars. Ap. J. 191, 173 (1974).
Ward, R. A., Newman, M. J., Clayton, D. D.: s-Process studies: branching and the time scale. Ap. J. Suppl. 31, 33 (1976).
Ward, R. A.: The importance of long-lived isomeric states in s-process branching. Ap. J. 216, 540 (1977).
Ward, R. A., Newman, M. J.: s-Process studies: the effects of a pulsed neutron flux. Ap. J. 219, 195 (1978).
Weaver, T. A., Zimmerman, G. B., Woosley, S. E.: Presupernova evolution of massive stars. Ap. J. 225, 1021 (1978).
Webbink, R. F.: The evolution of low-mass close binary systems. II. 1.50Mo+0.75Mo: evolution into contact. Ap. J. Suppl. 32, 583 (1976).
Wheeler, J. C., Cameron, A. G. W.: The effect of primordial hydrogen/helium fractionation on the solar neutrino flux. Ap. J. 196, 601 (1975).
Woosley, S. E., Howard, W. M.: The p-process in supernovae. Ap. J. Suppl. 36, 285 (1978).
Yahil, A., Beaudet, G.: Big-bang nucleosynthesis with nonzero Lepton numbers. Ap. J. 206, 26 (1976).
Yang, J., et al.: Constraints on cosmology and neutrino physics from big bang nucleosynthesis. Ap. J. 227, 697 (1979).
York, D. G., Rogerson, J. B. Jr.: The abundance of deuterium relative to hydrogen in interstellar space. Ap. J. 203, 378 (1976).
Adair, R. K., et al.: Determination of the neutron-proton ratio in primary cosmic rays. Phys. Rev. Lett. 39, 112 (1977).
Allkofer, O. C., et al.: Sea-level muon charge ratio of cosmic rays at high energies. Phys. Rev. Lett. 41, 832 (1978).
Alme, M. L., Wilson, J. R.: A possible mechanism for mass transfer in X-ray binary systems with OB supergiant companions. Ap. J. 210, 233 (1976).
Arnett, W. D., Schramm, D. N.: Origin of cosmic rays, atomic nuclei, and pulsars in explosions of massive stars (Erratum). Ap. J. 187, L47 (1974).
Arnett, W. D.: Supernova remnants and presupernova models. Ap. J. 195, 727 (1975).
Arnett, W. D.: On the theory of type I supernovae. Ap. J. 230, L 37 (1979).
Arons, J., Lea, S. M.: Accretion onto magnetized neutron stars: structure and interchange instability of a model magnetosphere. Ap. J. 207, 914 (1976).
AvNI, Y., Bahcall, J. N.: Masses for Vela X-1 and other X-ray binaries. Ap. J. 202, L 131 (1975).
Axford, W. I., et al.: Cosmic-ray gradients from Pioneer-10 and Pioneer-11. Ap. J. 210, 603 (1976).
Baan, W. A.: Neutron stars as X-ray burst sources. Ap. J. 214, 245 (1977).
Badhwar, G. D., Stephens, S. A.: Hydrostatic equilibrium of gas, extent of cosmic ray confinement, and radio emission in the galaxy. Ap. J. 212, 494 (1977).
Badhwar, G. D., et al.: The cosmic-ray antiproton flux: an upper limit near that predicted for secondary production. Ap. J. 217, L 135 (1977).
Bahcall, J. N., et al.: Multiple star systems and X-ray sources. Ap. J. 189, L 17 (1974).
Bahcall, J. N., Sarazin, C. L.: Parameters and predictions for the X-ray emitting gas of Coma, Perseus, and Virgo. Ap. J. 213, L 99 (1977).
Bahcall, J. N.: Masses of neutron stars and black holes in X-ray binaries. Ann. Rev. Astron. Ap. 16, 241 (1978).
Bahcall, N. A.: X-ray clusters of galaxies: correlations with optical morphology and galaxy density. Ap. J. 217, L 77 (1977).
Bahcall, N. A.: X-ray clusters of galaxies: correlations of X-ray luminosity with galactic content. Ap. J. 218, L93 (1977).
Bahcall, N. A.: The X-ray luminosity function of clusters of galaxies: predictions from a thermal bremsstrahlung model. Ap. J. 232, L 83 (1979).
Benvenuti, A., et al.: Measurements of neutrino and antineutrino cross sections at high energies. Phys. Rev. Lett. 32, 125 (1974).
Bignami, G. F., et al.: High-energy galactic gamma radiation from cosmic rays concentrated in spiral arms. Ap. J. 199, 54 (1975).
Blake, J. B., et al.: Ultraheavy cosmic rays: theoretical implications of recent observations. Ap. J. 221, 694 (1978).
Blandford, R. D., Ostriker, J. P.: Particle acceleration by astrophysical shocks. Ap. J. 221, L29 (1978).
Bowers, R. L.: Gravitationally redshifted gamma rays and neutron star masses. Ap. J. 216, L 63 (1977).
Brecher, K., Morrison, P.: Cosmic gamma-ray bursts from directed stellar flares. Ap. J. 187, L97 (1974).
Buffington, A., Orth, C. D., Smoot, G. F.: Measurement of the positron-electron ratio in the primary cosmic rays from 5 to 50 GeV. Phys. Rev. Lett. 33, 34 (1974).
Buffington, A., Orth, C. D., Smoot, G. F.: Measurement of primary cosmic-ray electrons and positrons from 4 to 50 GeV. Ap. J. 199, 669 (1975).
Buffington, A., Orth, C. D., Mast, T. S.: Relativistic Be’: a probe of cosmic-ray acceleration? Phys. Rev. Lett. 41, 594 (1978).
CassÉ, M., Soutoul, A.: Time delay between explosive nucleosynthesis and cosmic-ray acceleration. Ap. J. 200, L 75 (1975).
Cavallo, G., Jelley, J. V.: Why are no radio pulses associated with the bursts of celestial gamma rays ? Ap. J. 201, L 113 (1975).
Chan, J. H., Price, P. B.: Composition and energy spectra of heavy nuclei of unknown origin detected on Skylab. Phys. Rev. Lett. 35, 539 (1975).
Chevalier, R. A.: The evolution of supernova remnants. I. Spherically symmetric models. Ap. J. 188, 501 (1974).
Chevalier, R. A.: The evolution of supernova remnants. Iii. Thermal waves. Ap. J. 198, 355 (1975).
Chevalier, R. A.: The evolution of supernova remnants. IV. The supernova ejecta. Ap. J. 200, 698 (1975).
Chevalier, R. A.: The hydrodynamics of type II supernovae. Ap. J. 207, 872 (1976).
Chevalier, R. A.: Cassiopeia A, faint supernovae, and heavy-element ejection by supernovae. Ap. J. 208, 826 (1976).
Chevalier, R. A., Robertson, J. W., Scott, J. S.: Cosmic-ray acceleration and the radio evolution of Cassiopeia A. Ap. J. 207, 450 (1976).
Clark, G. W.: X-ray binaries in globular clusters. Ap. J. 199, L 143 (1975).
Clayton, D. D.: Line ‘Co gamma rays: new diagnostic of supernova structure. Ap. J. 188, 155 (1974).
Clayton, D. D., Hoyle, F.: Gamma-ray lines from novae. Ap. J. 187, L 101 (1974).
Clayton, D. D.: Gamma-ray lines: a 22Na radioactive diagnostic of young supernovae. Ap. J. 198, 151 (1975).
Clayton, D. D., Dwek, E.: Gamma-ray emission and nucleosynthesis of lithium by young pulsars. Ap. J. 206, L 59 (1976).
Cline, T. L., et al.: Helios 2-vela-ariel 5 gamma-ray burst source position. Ap. J. 229, L47 (1979).
Cline, T. L., et al.: Gamma-ray burst observations from Helios 2. Ap. J. 232, L 1 (1979).
Colgate, S. A.: The formation of deuterium and the light elements by spallation in supernova shocks. Ap. J. 187, 321 (1974).
CowlE, L. L., Ostriker, J. P., Stark, A. A.: Time-dependent spherically symmetric accretion onto compact X-ray sources. Ap. J. 226, 1041 (1978).
Cowsik, R., Lee, M. A.: On the sources of cosmic ray electrons. Ap. J. 228, 297 (1979).
Cox, D. P., Smith, B. W.: Large-scale effects of supernova remnants on the galaxy: generation and maintenance of a hot network of tunnels. Ap. J. 189, L 105 (1974).
Crannell, C. J., et al.: Formation of the 0.511 MeV line in solar flares. Ap. J. 210, 582 (1976).
Daugherty, J. K., Hartman, R. C., Schmidt, P. J.: A measurement of cosmic-ray positron and negatron spectra between 50 and 800 MV. Ap. J. 198, 493 (1975).
Degregoria, A. J.: An investigation of accretion of matter onto white dwarfs as a possible X-ray mechanism. Ap. J. 189, 555 (1974).
Denoyer, L. K.: Neutral hydrogen associated with supernova remnants. I. The Cygnus loop. Ap. J. 196, 479 (1975).
Dickel, J. R.: Do supernova remnants provide the cosmic-ray electrons? Ap. J. 193 755 (1974).
Dicus, D. A., et al.: Neutrino pair bremsstrahlung including neutral current effects. Ap. J. 210, 481 (1976).
Dwyer, R., Meyer, P.: Isotopic composition of cosmic-ray nitrogen at 1.5 GeV/amu. Phys. Rev. Lett. 35, 601 (1975).
Eardley, D. M., Lightman, A. P.: Magnetic viscosity in relativistic accretion disks. Ap. J. 200, 187 (1975).
Eilek, J. A., Caroff, L. J.: Cloud acceleration by cosmic rays in the vicinity of compact luminous objects. Ap. J. 208, 887 (1976).
Epstein, R. I., Arnett, W. D., Schramm, D. N.: Can supernovae produce deuterium ? Ap. J. 190, L 13 (1974).
Epstein, R. I., Petrosian, V.: Effects of primordial fluctuations on the abundances of the light elements. Ap. J. 197, 281 (1975).
Epstein, R. I.: Deuterium production by high-energy particles. Ap. J. 212, 595 (1977).
Evans, W. D., Belian, R. D., Conner, J. P.: Observations of intense cosmic X-ray bursts. Ap. J. 207, L91 (1976).
Felten, J. E., Gould, R. J.: The effect of repeated Compton scatterings on the diffuse X-ray background. Ap. J. 194, L 39 (1974).
Fichtel, C. E., et al.: Significance of medium-energy gamma-ray astronomy in the study of cosmic rays. Ap. J. 208, 211 (1976).
Fichtel, C. E., et al.: Sas-2 observations of the diffuse gamma radiation in the galactic latitude interval 10° IbI 90°. Ap. J. 217, L 9 (1977).
Fisher, A. J., et al.: The isotopic composition of cosmic rays with 5 Z 26. Ap. J. 205, 938 (1976).
Fisk, L. A., Kozlovsky, B., Ramaty, R.: An interpretation of the observed oxygen and nitrogen enhancements in low-energy cosmic rays. Ap. J. 190, L 35 (1974).
Fleischer, R. L., Hart, H. R. Jr., Renshaw, A.: Composition of heavy cosmic rays from 25 to 180 MeV per atomic mass unit. Ap. J. 193, 575 (1974).
Flowers, E. G., Sutherland, P. G.: Neutrino-neutrino scattering and supernovae. Ap. J. 208, L 19 (1976).
Fuchs, B., Schlickeiser, R., Thielheim, K. O.: The structure of the galactic disk and its implications for gamma-ray astronomy. Ap. J. 206, 589 (1976).
Gaffet, B.: Pulsar theory of supernova light curves. I. Dynamical effect and thermalization of the pulsar strong waves. Ap. J. 216, 565 (1977).
Gallagher, J. S., Starrfield, S.: Theory and observations of classical novae. Ann. Rev. Astron. Ap. 16, 171 (1978).
Garcia-Munoz, M., Mason, G. M., Simpson, J. A.: The cosmic-ray age deduced from the “Be abundance. Ap. J. 201, L 141 (1975).
Garcia-Munoz, M., Mason, G. M., Simpson, J. A.: The isotopic composition of galactic cosmic-ray lithium, beryllium, and boron. Ap. J. 201, L 145 (1975).
Garcia-Munoz, M., Mason, G. M., Simpson, J. A.: The age of the galactic cosmic rays derived from the abundance of 10Be. Ap. J. 217, 859 (1977).
Giacconi, R., et al.: The third Uhuru catalog of X-ray sources. Ap. J. Suppl. 27, 37 (1974).
Giacconi, R., et al.: A high-sensitivity X-ray survey using the Einstein observatory and the discrete source contribution to the extragalactic X-ray background. Ap. J. 234, L 1 (1979).
Ginzburg, V. L., Ptuskin, V. S.: On the origin of cosmic rays: some problems in high-energy astrophysics. Rev. Mod. Phys. 48, 161 (1976).
Golden, R. L., et al.: Rigidity spectrum of Z 3 cosmic-ray nuclei in the range 4 to 285 GV and a search for cosmic antimatter. Ap. J. 192, 747 (1974).
Golden, R. L., et al.: Evidence for the existence of cosmic-ray antiprotons. Phys. Rev. Lett. 43, 1196 (1979).
Goodman, J. A., et al.: Composition of primary cosmic rays above 1013 eV from the study of time distributions of energetic Hadrons near air-shower cores. Phys. Rev. Lett. 42, 854 (1979).
Gould, R. J.: Energy loss of relativistic electrons and positrons traversing cosmic matter. Ap. J. 196, 689 (1975).
Gould, R. J., Rephaeli, Y.: The effective penetration distance of ultrahigh-energy electrons and photons traversing a cosmic blackbody photon gas. Ap. J. 225, 318 (1978).
Grindlay, J. E., Fazio, G. G.: Cosmic gamma-ray bursts from relativistic dust grains. Ap. J. 187, L 93 (1974).
Grindlay, J. E.: Thermal limit for spherical accretion and X-ray bursts. Ap. J. 221, 234 (1978).
Hagen, F. A., Fisher, A. J., Ormes, J. F.: ‘Be abundance and the age of cosmic rays: a balloon measurement. Ap. J. 212, 262 (1977).
Hainebach, K. L., Norman, E. B., Schramm, D. N.: Consistency of cosmic-ray composition, acceleration mechanism, and supernova models. Ap. J. 203, 245 (1976).
Hall, R. D., et al.: Detection of nuclear gamma rays from Centaurus A. Ap. J. 210, 631 (1976).
Hartman, R. C., et al.: Galactic plane gamma-radiation. Ap. J. 230, 597 (1979).
Hatchett, S., Weaver, R.: Structure of the iron fluorescence line in X-ray binaries. Ap. J. 215, 285 (1977).
Hayakawa, S., et al.: Observation of the diffuse component of cosmic soft X-rays. Ap. J. 195, 535 (1975).
Haymes, R. C., et al.: Detection of nuclear gamma rays from the galactic center region. Ap. J. 201, 593 (1975).
Hedrick, D., Cox, D. P.: Galactic infall and cosmic ray acceleration. Ap. J. 215 208 (1977).
Henry, J. P., et al.: Detection of X-ray emission from distant clusters of galaxies. Ap. J. 234, L 15 (1979).
Higdon, J. C., Lingenfelter, R. E.: The origin of cosmic rays and the Vela gamma-ray excess. Ap. J. 198, L 17 (1975).
Higdon, J. C., Lingenfelter, R. E.: Nuclear 7-ray lines in accretion source spectra. Ap. J. 215, L 53 (1977).
Higdon, J. C.: Distribution of cosmic rays and magnetic field in the galaxy as deduced from synchrotron radio and gamma-ray observations. Ap. J. 232, 113 (1979).
Hogan, C., Layzer, D.: Origin of the X-ray background. Ap. J. 212, 360 (1977).
Ipavich, F. M.: Galactic winds driven by cosmic rays. Ap. J. 196, 107 (1975).
Isenberg, P. A.: Adiabatic self-similar blast waves, their radial instabilities, and their application to supernova remnants. Ap. J. 217, 597 (1977).
Jenkins, E. B., Silk, J., Wallerstein, G.: Interaction of the Vela supernova remnant with the cloudy interstellar medium. Ap. J. 209, L 87 (1976).
Jokipii, J. R.: Consequences of a lifetime greater than 10’ years for galactic cosmic rays. Ap. J. 208, 900 (1976).
Jones, C.: Energy spectra of 43 galactic X-ray sources observed by Uhuru. Ap. J. 214, 856 (1977).
Kane, S. R., Anderson, K. A.: Characteristics of cosmic X-ray bursts observed with the Ogo-5 satellite. Ap. J. 210, 875 (1976).
Katz, J. I., Salpeter, E. E.: X-ray emission from vibrating white dwarfs. Ap. J. 193 429 (1974).
Katz, J. I.: The origin of X-ray sources in clusters of galaxies. Ap. J. 207, 25 (1976).
Katz, J. I.: X-rays from spherical accretion onto degenerate dwarfs. Ap. J. 215, 265 (1977).
Kellogg, E., Baldwin, J. R., Koch, D.: Studies of cluster X-ray sources, energy spectra for the Perseus, Virgo, and Coma clusters. Ap. J. 199, 299 (1975).
Kellogg, E. M.: X-ray astronomy in the Uhuru epoch and beyond. Ap. J. 197 689 (1975).
Kellogg, E. M.: Primeval gas clouds and the low-energy X-ray background. Ap. J. 218, 582 (1977).
Kestenbaum, H. L., et al.: Evidence for X-ray iron line emission in Cygnus X-3 obtained with a crystal spectrometer. Ap. J. 216, L 19 (1977).
Kirshner, R. P.: Spectrophotometry of the Crab Nebula. Ap. J. 194, 323 (1974).
Kirshner, R. P., Kwan, J.: The envelopes of Type II supernovae. Ap. J. 197, 415 (1975).
Kozlovsky, B., Ramaty, R.: 478-keV and 431-keV line emissions from alpha-alpha reactions. Ap. J. 191, L43 (1974). -
Lamb, D. Q., et al.: Neutron star wobble in binary X-ray sources. Ap. J. 198, L 21 (1975).
Lamb, D. Q., Pethick, C. J.: Effects of neutrino degeneracy in supernova models. Ap. J. 209, L 77 (1976).
Lamb, F. K., et al.: A model for bursting X-ray sources: time-dependent accretion by magnetic neutron stars and degenerate dwarfs. Ap. J. 217, 197 (1977).
Langer, S. H., Petrosian, V.: Impulsive solar X-ray bursts. Iii. Polarization, directivity, and spectrum of the reflected and total bremsstrahlung radiation from a beam of electrons directed toward the photosphere. Ap. J. 215, 666 (1977).
Lattimer, J. M., Schramm, D. N., Grossman, L.: Condensation in supernova ejecta and isotopic anomalies in meteorites. Ap. J. 219, 230 (1978).
Lea, S. M.: Pulsating X-ray sources: slowly rotating neutron stars? Ap. J. 209, L 69 (1976).
Leventhal, M., Maccallum, C. J., Stano, P. D.: Detection of 511 keV positron annihilation radiation from the galactic center direction. Ap. J. 225, L 11 (1978).
Levine, A., et al.: On the ultrasoft X-ray background. Ap. J. 205, 226 (1976).
Liang, E. P. T.: Convective accretion disks and X-ray bursters. Ap. J. 218, 243 (1977).
Lingenfelter, R. E., Ramaty, R.: Gamma-ray lines from interstellar grains. Ap. J. 211, L 19 (1977).
Lightman, A. P., Shapiro, S. L.: Spectrum and polarization of X-rays from accretion disks around black holes. Ap. J. 198, L 73 (1975).
Mccray, R., Hatchett, S.: Mass transfer in binary X-ray systems. Ap. J. 199, 196 (1975).
Mccray, R., Stein, R. F., Kafatos, M.: Thermal instability in supernova shells. Ap. J. 196, 565 (1975).
Mcdonald, F. B., et al.: The anomalous abundance of cosmic-ray nitrogen and oxygen nuclei at low energies. Ap. J. 187, L 105 (1974).
Maehl, R. C., et al.: Neutron-rich isotopes of cosmic rays with 95Z516. Ap. J. 202, L 119 (1975).
Malina, R., Lampton, M., Bowyer, S.: Soft X-ray morphology of the Virgo, Coma, and Perseus clusters of galaxies. Ap. J. 209, 678 (1976).
Maraschi, L., Reina, C., Treves, A.: The effect of radiation pressure on accretion disks around black holes. Ap. J. 206, 295 (1976).
Maraschi, L., Treves, A.: Temperature of an accretion disk around a black hole near the Eddington luminosity. Ap. J. 211, 263 (1977).
Maraschi, L., Treves, A.: Gamma rays from accreting black holes. Ap. J. 218, L 113 (1977).
Margolis, S. H., Schramm, D. N., Silberberg, R.: Ultrahigh-energy neutrino astronomy. Ap. J. 221, 990 (1978).
Mathews, W. G.: The enormous mass of the elliptical galaxy M 87: a model for the extended X-ray source. Ap. J. 219, 413 (1978).
Maza, J., Van Den Bergh, S.: Statistics of extragalactic supernovae. Ap. J. 204 519 (1976).
Mazurek, T. J.: Pauli constriction of the low-energy window in neutrino supernova models. Ap. J. 207, L 87 (1976).
Meegan, C. A., Earl, J. A.: The spectrum of cosmic electrons with energies between 6 and 100 GeV. Ap. J. 197, 219 (1975).
Metzger, A. E., et al.: Observation of a cosmic gamma-ray burst on Apollo 16. I. Temporal variability and energy spectrum. Ap. J. 194, L 19 (1974).
Mewaldt, R. A., et al.: Isotopic and elemental composition of the anomalous low-energy cosmic-ray fluxes. Ap. J. 205, 931 (1976).
Mewaldt, R. A., Stone, E. C., Vogt, R. E.: The isotopic composition of hydrogen and helium in low-energy cosmic rays. Ap. J. 206, 616 (1976).
Michalsky, J. J., Swedlund, J. B., Stokes, R. A.: Cygnus X-1: discovery of variable circular polarization. Ap. J. 198, L 101 (1975).
Michel, F. C.: Accretion magnetospheres: general solutions. Ap. J. 213, 836 (1977).
Michel, F. C.: Accretion magnetosphere stability. I. Adiabatic gas model. Ap. J. 214, 261 (1977).
Michel, F. C.: Accretion magnetosphere stability. II. Polar cap “drip”. Ap. J. 216, 838 (1977).
Mikaelian, K. O.: Supernova explosions, the new Leptons, and right-handed neutrinos. Phys. Rev. Lett. 36, 1089 (1976).
Miller, J. S.: Spectrophotometry of filaments in the Crab Nebula. Ap. J. 220 490 (1978).
Montmerle, T.: On the ability of current experiments to test it° decay gamma-ray background theories. Ap. J. 197, 285 (1975).
Montmerle, T.: On the possible existence of cosmological cosmic rays. I. The framework for light-element and gamma-ray production. Ap. J. 216, 177 (1977).
Montmerle, T.: On the possible existence of cosmological cosmic rays. II. The observational constraints set by the y-ray background spectrum and the lithium and deuterium abundances. Ap. J. 216, 620 (1977).
Montmerle, T.: On the possible existence of cosmological cosmic rays. Iii. Nuclear y-ray production. Ap. J. 218, 263 (1977).
Moore, W. E., Garmire, G. P.: The X-ray stucture of the Vela supernova remnant. Ap. J. 199, 680 (1975).
Mullan, D. J.: Flares on white dwarfs and gamma-ray bursts. Ap. J. 208, 199 (1976).
Muraki, Y., et al.: Measurement of cosmic-ray muon spectrum and charge ratio at large zenith angles in the momentum range 100 GeV/c to 10 TeV/c using a magnet spectrograph. Phys. Rev. Lett. 43, 974 (1979).
Noerdlinger, P. D.: Positrons in compact radio sources. Phys. Rev. Lett. 41, 135 (1978).
Novaco, J. C., Brown, L. W.: Nonthermal galactic emission below 10 megahertz. Ap. J. 221, 114 (1978).
Gelman, H. B., Maran, S. P.: The origin of OB associations and extended regions of high-energy activity in the galaxy through supernova cascade processes. Ap. J. 209, 124 (1976).
Ormes, J., Freier, P.: On the propagation of cosmic rays in the galaxy. Ap. J. 222, 471 (1978).
Orth, C. D., Buffington, A.: Secondary cosmic-ray e± from 1 to 100 GeV in the upper atmosphere and interstellar space, and interpretation of a recent e + flux measurement. Ap. J. 206, 312 (1976).
Ostriker, J. P., et al.: A new luminosity limit for spherical accretion onto compact X-ray sources. Ap. J. 208, L 61 (1976).
Otgonsuren, O., et al.: Abundances of Z 52 nuclei in galactic cosmic rays: long-term averages based on studies of pallasites. Ap. J. 210, 258 (1976).
Owens, A. J., JoKipii, J. R.: Cosmic rays in a dynamical halo. I. Age and matter traversal distributions and anisotropy for nuclei. Ap. J. 215, 677 (1977).
Owens, A. J., JoKiph, J. R.: Cosmic rays in a dynamical halo. II. Electrons. Ap. J. 215, 685 (1977).
Pacini, F., Salvati, M.: The active region in galactic nuclei: a spinar model. Ap. J. 225, L 99 (1978).
Paczynski, B.: A model of accretion disks in close binaries. Ap. J. 216, 822 (1977).
Paul, J., Casse, M., Cerarsky, C. J.: Distribution of gas, magnetic fields, and cosmic rays in the galaxy. Ap. J. 207, 62 (1976).
Petterson, J. A.: Twisted accretion disks. I. Derivation of the basic equations. Ap. J. 214, 550 (1977).
Petterson, J. A.: Twisted accretion disks. II. Applications to X-ray binary systems. Ap. J. 216, 827 (1977).
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Lang, K.R. (1980). Nuclear Astrophysics and High Energy Particles. In: Astrophysical Formulae. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-21642-2_4
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