Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Sexual Dimorphism in Flowers and Inflorescences

  • Chapter
Gender and Sexual Dimorphism in Flowering Plants

Abstract

Darwin’s theory of natural selection successfully explains why organisms are designed to meet environmental challenges, his simple proposal being that heritable traits that confer survival benefits on individuals will come to predominate in populations (Darwin 1859). Thus, it was a special challenge for him to explain the evolution of secondary sex characters that impair survival in animals. His proposed solution was the theory of sexual selection, according to which features that enhance mating success can evolve despite a possible survival cost (Darwin 1871). This original concept and its recent refinements (see reviews in Andersson 1994; M∅ller 1994; Andersson and Iwasa 1996) were inspired by obvious patterns. For example, it is easy to distinguish female and male peafowl by sight at a great distance, and the males’ exaggerated tails clearly appear to hinder locomotion and camouflage.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ågren J, Willson MF (1991) Gender variation and sexual differences in reproductive characters and seed production in gynodioecious Geranium maculatum. Am J Bot 78: 470–480

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ågren J, Elmqvist T, Tunlid A (1986) Pollination by deceit, floral sex ratios, and seed set in dioecious Rubus chamaemorus L. Oecologia 70: 332–338

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson GJ (1979) Dioecious Solanum species of hermaphroditic origin is an example of a broad convergence. Nature 282: 836–838

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson GJ, Symon DE (1989) Functional dioecy and andromonoecy in Solanum. Evolution 43: 204–219

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andersson M (1994) Sexual selection. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey Andersson M, Iwasa Y (1995) Sexual selection. Trends Ecol Evol 11: 53–58

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersson S (1996) Floral display and pollination success in Senecio jacobaea (Asteraceae): Interactive effects of head and corymb size. Am J Bot 83: 71–75

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong JE, Irvine AK (1989) Flowering, sex ratios, pollen-ovule ratios, fruit set, and reproductive effort of a dioecious tree Myristica insipida ( Myristicaceae), in two different rain forest communities. Am J Bot 76: 74–85

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnold SJ (1994a) Bateman’s principles and the measurement of sexual selection in plants and animals. Am Nat 144: S126 - S149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnold SJ (1994b) Is there a unifying concept of sexual selection that applies to both plants and animals? Am Nat 144: S1 - S12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashman T-L (1992) Indirect costs of seed production within and between seasons in a gynodioecious species. Oecologia 92: 266–272

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashman T-L (1994) Reproductive allocation in hermaphroditic and female plants of Sidalcea oregana ssp. spicata using four currencies. Am J Bot 81: 433–438

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashman T-L, Schoen DJ (1994) How long should flowers live? Nature 371: 788–791

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ashman T-L, Stanton ML (1991) Seasonal variation in pollination dynamics of sexually dimorphic Sidalcea oregana ssp. spicata ( Malvaceae ). Ecology 72: 993–1003

    Google Scholar 

  • Assouad MW, Dommee B, Lumaret R, Valdeyron G (1978) Reproductive capacities in the sexual forms of the gynodioecious species Thymus vulgaris L. Bot J Linn Soc 77: 29–39

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Atsatt PR, Rundel PW (1982) Pollinator maintenance vs. fruit production: partitioned reproductive effort in subdioecious Fuschia lycioides. Ann MO Bot Gard 69: 199–208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baker HG (1948) Corolla size in gynodioecious and gynomonoecious species of flowering plants Proc Leeds Philos Lit Soc 5: 136–139

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker HG (1976) “Mistake” pollination as a reproductive system with special reference to the Caricaceae. In: Burley J, Styles BT (eds) Tropical trees: variation, breeding and conservation. Academic Press, London, pp 161–169

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrett SCH (1992) Gender variation and the evolution of dioecy in Wurmbea dioica (Liliaceae). J Evol Biol 5: 423–443

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bateman AJ (1948) Intrasexual selection in Drosophila. Heredity 2: 349–369

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bawa KS (1980) Mimicry of male by female flowers and intrasexual competition for pollinators in Jacaratia dolichaula (D. Smith) Woodson (Caricaceae). Evolution 34: 467–474

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bawa KS, Opler PA (1975) Dioecism in tropical trees. Evolution 29: 167–179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beavis WD, Pollack E, Frey KJ (1987) A theoretical model for quantitatively inherited traits influenced by nuclear-cytoplasmic interactions. Theor Appl Genet 74: 571–578

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell G (1985) On the function of flowers. Proc R Soc Lond B 224: 223–265

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bertin R I (1988) Paternity in plants. In: Lovett Doust J, Lovett Doust L (eds) Plant reproductive ecology: patterns and strategies. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 30–59

    Google Scholar 

  • Broyles SB, Wyatt R (1990) Paternity analysis in a natural population of Asclepias exalta: multiple paternity, functional gender, and the “pollen-donation hypothesis”. Evolution 44: 1454–1468

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Broyles SB, Wyatt R (1995) A reexamination of the pollen-donation hypothesis in an experimental population of Asclepias exalta. Evolution 49: 89–99

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bullock SC, Bawa KS (1981) Sexual dimorphism and the annual flowering pattern in Jacaratia dolichaula (D. Smith) Woodson ( Caricaceae) in a Costa Rican rain forest. Ecology 64: 851–861

    Google Scholar 

  • Bulmer M (1994) Theoretical evolutionary ecology. Sinauer, Sunderland, Massachusetts

    Google Scholar 

  • Burd M (1994) Bateman’s principle and plant reproduction: The role of pollen limitation in fruit and seed set. Bot Rev 60: 83–139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell DR (1989) Inflorescence size: test of the male function hypothesis. Am J Bot 76: 730 738

    Google Scholar 

  • Carr DE (1990) Sexual dimorphism and fruit production in a dioecious understory tree, Ilex opaca Ait. Oecologia 85: 381–388

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carroll SB, Delph LF (1996) The effects of gender and plant architecture on allocation to flowers in dioecious Silene latifolia ( Caryophyllaceae ). Int J Plant Sci 157: 493–500

    Google Scholar 

  • Charlesworth D (1989) Allocation to male and female function in hermaphrodites, in sexually polymorphic populations. J Theor Biol 139: 327–342

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charlesworth D (1993) Why are unisexual flowers associated with wind pollination and unspecialized pollinators? Am Nat 141: 481–490

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charlesworth D, Schemske DW, Sork VL (1987) The evolution of plant reproductive characters: Sexual versus natural selection. In: Stearns SC (ed) The evolution of sex and its consequences. Birkhäuser, Basel, pp 317–335

    Google Scholar 

  • Charnov EL (1979) Simultaneous hermaphroditism and sexual selection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 76: 2480–2484

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Charnov EL (1993) Life history invariants: some explorations of symmetry in evolutionary ecology. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cipollini ML, Whigham DF (1994) Sexual dimorphism and cost of reproduction in the dioecious shrub Lindera benzoin ( Lauraceae ). Am J Bot 117: 295–307

    Google Scholar 

  • Connor HE (1965) Breeding systems in New Zealand grasses. V. Naturalized species of Cortaderia. New Zeal J Bot 3: 17–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connor HE (1973) Breeding systems in Cortaderia (Gramineae). Evolution 27: 663–678

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Correns C (1928) Bestimmung, Vererbung und Verteilung des Geschlechtes bei den höheren Pflanzen. Handbuch der Vererbungswissenschaft 2: 1–138 (in Delph 1996)

    Google Scholar 

  • Costich DE (1995) Gender specialization across a climatic gradient: experimental comparison of monoecious and dioecious Ecballium. Ecology 76: 1036–1050

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costich DE, Meagher TR (1992) Genetic variation in Ecballium elaterium (Cucurbitaceae): breeding system and geographic distribution. J Evol Biol 5: 589–601

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darwin C (1859) The origin of species. J Murray, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Darwin C (1871) The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. J Murray, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Darwin C (1877) The different forms of flowers on plants of the same species. J Murray, London

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Delph LF (1990) Sex differential resource allocation patterns in the subdioecious shrub Hebe subalpina. Ecology 71: 1342–1351

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delph LF (1996) Flower size dimorphism in unisexual plants. In: Lloyd DG, Barrett SCH (eds) Floral biology: studies on floral evolution in animal-pollinated plants. Chapman and Hall, New York, pp 217–237

    Google Scholar 

  • Delph LF, Lively CM (1989) The evolution of floral color change: pollinator attraction versus physiological constraints in Fucshia excorticata. Evolution 43: 1252–1262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delph LF, Lively CM (1992) Pollinator visitation, floral display, and nectar production of the sexual morphs of a gynodioecious shrub. Oikos 63: 161–170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delph LF, Meagher TR (1995) Sexual dimorphism masks life history trade-offs in the dioecious plant Silene latifolia. Ecology 76: 775–785

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delph LF, Galloway LF, Stanton ML (1996) Sexual dimorphism in flower size. Am Nat 148: 299–320

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Desfeux C, Maurice S, Henry J-P, Lejeune B, Gouyon, P-H (1996) Evolution of reproductive systems in the genus Silene. Proc R Soc Lond B 263: 409–414

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eckhart VM (1991a) Floral investment and the mating system of Phacelia linearis (Hydrophyllaceae). PhD Dissertation, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah

    Google Scholar 

  • Eckhart VM (1991b) The consequences of floral display for pollinator visitation vary among populations of Phacelia linearis (Hydrophyllaceae). Evol Ecol 5: 370–384

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eckhart VM (1992a) Resource allocation and the evolution of gynodioecy in Phacelia linearis (Hydrophyllaceae). Evolution 46: 1313–1328

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eckhart VM (1992b) Spatio-temporal variation in abundance and variation in foraging behavior of the pollinators of gynodioecious Phacelia linearis (Hydrophyllaceae). Oikos 64: 573–586

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eckhart VM (1992c) The genetics of gender and the effects of gender on floral characters in gynodioecious Phacelia linearis (Hydrophyllaceae). Am J Bot 79: 792–800

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eckhart VM (1993) Do hermaphrodites of gynodioecious Phacelia linearis trade off seed production to attract pollinators? Biol J Linn Soc 50: 47–63

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eckhart VM, Chapin FS III (1997) Nutrient sensitivity of the cost of male function in gynodioecious Phacelia linearis ( Hydrophyllaceae ). Am J Bot 84: 1092–1097

    Google Scholar 

  • Elmqvist T, Agren J, Tunlid A (1988) Sexual dimorphism and between-year variation in flowering, fruit set, and pollinator behavior in a boreal willow. Oikos 53: 58–66

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faegri K, Van der Pijl L (1979) Principles of pollination ecology. 3rd edn. Pergamon, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Fishbein M, Venable DL (1996) Evolution of inflorescence design: theory and data. Evolution 50: 2165–2177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fong DW, Kane TC, Culver DC (1995) Vestigialization and loss of nonfunctional characters. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 26: 249–268

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frank S (1989) The evolutionary dynamics of cytoplasmic male sterility. Am Nat 133: 345–376

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fritz A-L, Nillson LA (1996) Reproductive success and gender variation in deceit-pollinated or-chids. In: Lloyd DG, Barrett SCH (eds) Floral biology: studies on floral evolution in animalpollinated plants. Chapman and Hall, New York, pp 319–338

    Google Scholar 

  • Galen C, Newport MEA (1987) Bumblebee behavior and selection on flower size in the sky pilot, Polemonium viscosum. Oecologia 74: 20–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galen C, Stanton ML (1989) Bumble bee pollination and floral morphology: factors influencing pollen dispersal in an alpine wildflower, Polemonium viscosum ( Polemoniaceae ). Am J Bot 75: 419–426.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geber MA (1995) Fitness effects of sexual dimorphism in plants. Trends Ecol Evol 10: 222–223

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson JP, Diggle PK (1997) Structural analysis of female and hermaphroditic flowers of a gynodioecious tree, Ocotea tenera ( Lauraceae ). Am J Bot 84: 298–307

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert LE (1975) Ecological consequences of a coevolved mutualism between butterflies and plants. In: Gilbert LE, Raven PH (eds) Coevolution of animals and plants. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas, pp 210–240

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant V (1995) Sexual selection in plants: pros and cons. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92: 1247–1250

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harder LD, Barrett SCH (1996) Pollen dispersal and mating patterns in animal-pollinated plants. In: Lloyd DG, Barrett SCH (eds) Floral biology: studies on floral evolution in animalpollinated plants. Chapman and Hall, New York, pp 140–190

    Google Scholar 

  • Hickman JC (1993) The Jepson manual of higher plants of California. University of California Press, Berkeley, California

    Google Scholar 

  • Imazu T, Fujishita N (1961) Morphological, ecological, and cytological studies on wild butter-burs, Petasites japonicus Maxim. II. On the morphology of flower, sex ratio, and secondary sex characters. Japan Soc Hortic Sci J 30: 291–298 (in Lloyd and Webb 1977)

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson SG, Delph LF, Elderkin CL (1995) The effect of petal-size manipulation on pollen removal, seed set, and insect-visitor behavior in Campanula americana. Oecologia 102: 174–179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dolls CL, Chenier TC, Hatley CL (1994) Spectrophotometric analysis of nectar production in Silene vulgaris ( Caryophyllaceae ). Am J Bot 81: 60–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Jordano P (1993) Pollination biology of Prunus mahaleb L.: deferred consequences of gender variation for fecundity and seed size. Biol J Linn Soc 50: 65–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kato M (1993) Floral biology in Nepenthes gracilis (Nepenthaceae) in Sumatra. Am J Bot 80: 924–927

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kato M, Nagamasu H (1995) Dioecy in the endemic genus Dendrocalia (Compositae) on the Bonin ( Ogasawara) Islands. J Plant Res 108: 443–450

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaul MLH (1988) Male sterility in higher plants. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kay QON (1985) Nectar from willow catkins as a food source for blue tits. Bird Study 3: 40–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kay QON, Lack AJ, Bamber FC, Davies CR (1984) Differences between sexes in floral morphology, nectar production, and insect visits in a dioecious species, Silene dioica. New Phytol 98: 515–529

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kemp JR, Kevan PG, Posluszny U (1993) Morphological differences and changes of the gynoecium in short-lived flowers of Rosa setigera Michaux and their relationship to dioecy. Int J Plant Sci 154: 550–556

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kesseli R, Jain SK (1984) An ecological genetic study of gynodioecy in Limnanthes douglasii ( Limnanthaceae ). Am J Bot 71: 775–786

    Google Scholar 

  • Kevan PG, Eisikowitch D, Ambrose JD, Kemp JR (1990) Cryptic dioecy and insect pollination in Rosa setigera Michx. ( Rosaceae), a rare plant of Carolinian Canada. Biol J Linn Soc 40: 229–244

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirkpatrick M, Lande R (1989) The evolution of maternal characters. Evolution 43: 485–503

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klinkhamer PGL, de Jong TJ, Wesselingh RA (1991) Implications of differences between hermaphrodite and female flowers for attractiveness to pollinators and seed production. Neth J Bot 41: 130–143

    Google Scholar 

  • Lande R (1980) Sexual dimorphism, sexual selection, and adaptation in polygenic characters. Evolution 34: 292–305

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence GHM (1951) Taxonomy of vascular plants. MacMillan, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Little RJ (1983) A review of floral food deception mimicries, with comments on floral mutual-ism. In: Jones CE, Little RJ (eds) Handbook of experimental pollination biology. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd DG (1987) Allocations to pollen, seeds and pollination mechanisms in self-fertilizing plants. Funct Ecol 1: 83–89

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd DG (1988) Benefits and costs of biparental and uniparental reproduction in plants. In: Michod RE, Levin BR (eds) The evolution of sex. Sinauer, Sunderland, Massachusetts, pp 233–252

    Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd DG, Barrett SCH (eds) (1996) Floral biology: studies on floral evolution in animal-pollinated plants. Chapman and Hall, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd DG, Myall AJ (1976) Sexual dimorphism in Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Ann Bot 40: 115–123 (in Lloyd and Webb 1977)

    Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd DG, Webb CJ (1977) Secondary sex characters in plants. Bot Rev 43: 177–216

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyons EE, Waser NM, Price MV, Antonovics J (1989) Sources of variation in plant reproductive success and implications for concepts of sexual selection. Am Nat 134: 409–433

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maki M (1996) Differences in plant size and flower production between hermaphrodites and females of two gynodioecious Chionographis (Liliaceae). Can J Bot 74: 150–153

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer SS, Charlesworth D (1991) Cryptic dioecy in flowering plants: its occurrence and significance. Trends Ecol Evol 6: 320–325

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer SS, Charlesworth D (1992) Genetic evidence for multiple origins of diocey in the Hawaiian shrub Wikstroemia ( Thymelaeceae ). Evolution 46: 207–215

    Google Scholar 

  • Maynard Smith J, Brown RL (1986) Competition and body size. Theor Popul Biol 30: 166–179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meagher TR (1991) Analysis of paternity in a natural population of Chamaelirium luteum. II. Male reproductive success. Am Nat 137: 738–752

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meagher TR (1992) The quantitative genetics of sexual dimorphism in Silene latifolia (Caryophyllaceae). I. Genetic variation. Evolution 46: 445–457

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meagher TR (1994) The quantitative genetics of sexual dimorphism in Silene latifolia (Caryophyllaceae). II. Response to sex-specific selection. Evolution 48: 939–951

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell RJ (1993) Adaptive significance of Ipomopsis aggregata nectar production: observation and experiment in the field. Evolution 47: 25–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moller AP (1994) Sexual selection and the barn swallow. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Moller AP (1995) Bumblebee preference for symmetrical flowers. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92: 2288–2292

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moller AP, Erickson M (1995) Pollinator preference for symmetrical flowers and sexual selection in plants. Oikos 73: 15–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan MT (1993) Fruit to flower ratios and trade-offs in size and number. Evol Ecol 7:219–232 Morgan MT (1994) Models of sexual selection in hermaphrodites, especially plants. Am Nat 144: S100–5125

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muenchow G, Delesalle V (1994) Pollinator response to male floral display size in two Sagittaria ( Alismataceae) species. Am J Bot 81: 568–573

    Google Scholar 

  • Niklas KJ (1982) Pollination and airflow patterns around conifer ovulate cones. Science 217: 442–444

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Niklas KJ (1994) Plant allometry. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker G (1983) Arms races in evolution: an ESS to the opponent-independent costs game. J Theor Biol 101: 619–648

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phillipp M (1980) Reproductive biology of Stellaria longipes Goldie as revealed by a cultivation experiment. New Phyto185: 557–569

    Google Scholar 

  • Plack A (1957) Sexual dimorphism in Labiatae. Nature 360: 666–667

    Google Scholar 

  • Plack A (1958) Effect of gibberellic acid on corolla size. Nature 182: 610

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Primack RB (1985) Longevity of individual flowers. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 16: 15–38

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Primack RB (1987) Relationships among flowers, fruits, and seeds. Ann Rev Ecol Syst 18: 409–430

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Putterbaugh MN, Wied A, Galen C (1997) The functional ecology of gynodioecy in Eritrichum aretioides ( Boraginaceae), the alpine forget-me-not. Am J Bot 84: 393–400

    Google Scholar 

  • Pyke GH (1991) What does it cost a plant to produce floral nectar? Nature 350: 58–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Queller DC (1987) Sexual selection in flowering plants. In: Bradbury JW, Andersson MB (eds) Sexual selection: testing the alternatives. Wiley, New York, pp 165–179

    Google Scholar 

  • Raab MM, Koning RE (1988) How is floral expansion regulated? Bioscience 38: 670–674

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rausher MD (1992) The measurement of selection on quantitative characters: biases due to environmental covariances between traits and fitness. Evolution 46: 616–626

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Renner SS, Ricklefs RE (1995) Dioecy and its correlates in flowering plants. Am J Bot 82: 596–606

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richards AJ (1986) Plant breeding systems. Allen & Unwin, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Romero GA (1992) Non-functional flowers in Catasetum orchids (Catasetinae, Orchidaceae). Bot J Linn Soc 109: 305–313

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Romero GA, Nelson CE (1986) Sexual dimorphism in Catasetum orchids: forcible pollen emplacement and male flower competition. Science 232: 1538–1540

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rourke JP (1987) The inflorescence morphology and systematics of Aulax (Proteaceae). S Afr J Bot 53: 464–480

    Google Scholar 

  • Sakai S (1995) Evolutionarily stable selfing rates of hermaphroditic plants in competing and delayed selfing modes with allocation to attractive structures. Evolution 49: 557–564

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samson DA, Werk KS (1986) Size-dependent effects in the analysis of reproductive effort in plants. Am Nat 127: 667–680

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmid-Hempel P, Speiser B (1988) Effects of inflorescence size on pollination in Epilobium angustifolium.Oikos 53: 98–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt J (1983) Individual flowering phenology, plant size, and reproductive success in Linanthus androsaceaus, a California annual. Oecologia 59: 135–140

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schoen DJ, Ashman T-L (1995) The evolution of floral longevity: resource allocation to maintenance versus construction of repeated parts in modular organisms. Evolution 49: 131–139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schoen DJ, Dubuc M (1990) The evolution of inflorescence size and number: a gametepackaging strategy in plants. Am Nat 135: 841–857

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz ST, Ganders FR (1996) Evolution of unisexuality in the Hawaiian flora: a test of micro-evolutionary theory. Evolution 50: 842–855

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seger J, Eckhart VM (1996) Evolution of sexual systems and sex allocation in hermaphroditic plants when growth and reproduction overlap. Proc R Soc Lond B 263: 833–841

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Short RV, Balaban E (1994) The differences between the sexes. Cambridge University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Shykoff JA, Bucheli (1995) Pollinator visitation patterns, floral rewards and the probability of transmission of Microbotryum violaceum, a venereal disease of plants. J Ecol 83: 189–198

    Google Scholar 

  • Slatkin M (1984) Ecological causes of sexual dimorphism. Evolution 38: 622–630

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snow AA, Lewis PO (1993) Reproductive traits and male fertility in plants: empirical approaches. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 24: 331–351

    Google Scholar 

  • Snow AA, Spira TP, Simpson R, Klips RA (1996) The ecology of geitonogamous pollination. In: Lloyd DG, Barrett SCH (eds) Floral biology: studies on floral evolution in animal-pollinated plants. Chapman and Hall, New York, pp 191–216

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanton ML (1994) Male-male competition during pollination in plant populations. Am Nat 144: S40 - S68

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanton ML, Galloway LF (1990) Natural selection and allocation to sexual reproduction in flowering plants. Lect Math Life Sci 22: 1–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanton ML, Preston RE (1988a) A qualitative model for evaluating the effects of flower attractiveness on male and female fitness in plants. Am J Bot 75: 54–544

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanton ML, Preston RE (1988b) Ecological consequences and phenotypic correlates of petal size variation in wild radish, Raphanus sativus L. ( Brassicaceae ). Am J Bot 75: 528–539

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanton ML, Young HJ (1994) Selecting for floral character associations in wild radish, Raphanus raphanistrum. J Evol Biol 7: 271–285

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanton ML, Young HJ, Ellstrand NC, Clegg JM (1991) Consequences of floral variation for male and female reproduction in experimental populations of wild radish, Raphanus sativus L. Evolution 45: 268–280

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stephenson AG, Bertin RI (1983) Male competition, female choice, and sexual selection in plants. In: Real L (ed) Pollination biology. Academic Press, Orlando, Florida, pp 109–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens DP, Richards AJ (1985) Gynodioecy in Saxifraga granulata L. ( Saxifragaceae ). Plant Syst Evol 151: 43–54

    Google Scholar 

  • Sugawara T (1993) Gynodioecy in Dianthus superbus L. XV Int. Botanical Congr Abstr, Yokohama, Japan, pp 280

    Google Scholar 

  • Sugawara T, Horii Y (1995) Sexual dimorphism of Arenaria merckioides var. chokaiensis ( Caryophyllaceae ). Acta Phytotax Geobot 46: 47–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Sun M, Ganders FR (1988) Mixed mating systems in Hawaiian Bidens. Evolution 42: 516–527

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomson JD (1988) Effects of variation in inflorescence size and floral rewards on the visitation rates of traplining pollinators of Aralia hispida. Evol Ecol 2: 65–76

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uno GE (1982) Comparative reproductive biology of hermaphroditic and male-sterile Iris douglasiana Herb. (Iridaceae). Am J Bot 69: 818–823

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaarma A, Jaaskälinen O (1967) Studies on gynodioecism in the Finnish population of Geranium sylvaticum L. Ann Acad Sci Fenn A 108: 1–39 (in Delph 1996)

    Google Scholar 

  • Valdeyron G, Lloyd DG (1979) Sex differences and flowering phenology in the common fig, Ficus carica L. Evolution 33: 673–685

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Damme JMM, Van Delden W (1982) Gynodioecy in Plantago lanceolata L. I. Polymorphism for plasmon type. Heredity 49: 303–318

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb C] (1979) Breeding system and seed set in Euonymus europaeus (Celastraceae). Plant Syst Evol 132: 299–303

    Google Scholar 

  • Weberling F (1989) Morphology of flowers and inflorescences. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Weller SG, Wagner WL, Sakai AK (1995) A phylogenetic analysis of Schiedea and Alsinodendron (Caryophyllaceae: Alsinoideae): implications for the evolution of breeding systems. Syst Bot 20: 315–337

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehead DR (1983) Wind pollination: some ecological and evolutionary perspectives. In: Real L (ed) Pollination biology. Academic Press, Orlando, Florida, pp 97–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Willis JC (1892) On gynodioecism in the Labiatae. Proc Philos Soc Camb 7: 349–352 (in Delph 1996)

    Google Scholar 

  • Willson MF (1979) Sexual selection in plants. Am Nat 113: 777–790

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willson MF (1990) Sexual selection in plants and animals. Trends Ecol Evol 5: 210–214

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Willson MF (1991) Sexual selection, sexual dimorphism and plant phylogeny. Evol Ecol 5: 69–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willson MF (1994) Sexual selection in plants: perspective and overview. Am Nat 144: S13 - S39

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willson MF, Agren J (1989) Differential floral rewards and pollination by deceit in unisexual flowers. Oikos 55: 23–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willson MF, Burley N (1983) Mate choice in plants: tactics, mechanisms, and consequences. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson P, Thomson JD, Stanton ML, Rigney LP (1994) Beyond floral Batemania: gender biases in selection for pollination success. Am Nat 143: 283–296

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yetter RB (1988) The expression of male sterility in Lobelia siphilitica L (Campanulaceae): a life history approach. PhD Dissertation, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio (in Delph 1996 )

    Google Scholar 

  • Young HJ, Stanton ML (1990) Influences of floral variation on pollen removal and seed production in wild radish. Ecology 71: 536–547

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Vincent M. Eckhart
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Section of Ecology and Systematics, Cornell University, 14853-2701, Ithaca, NY, USA

    Monica A. Geber  & Todd E. Dawson  & 

  2. Dept. of Biology, Indiana University, 47405, Bloomington, IN, USA

    Lynda F. Delph

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1999 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Eckhart, V.M. (1999). Sexual Dimorphism in Flowers and Inflorescences. In: Geber, M.A., Dawson, T.E., Delph, L.F. (eds) Gender and Sexual Dimorphism in Flowering Plants. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-03908-3_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-03908-3_5

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-642-08424-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-662-03908-3

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation