Summary
The purpose of this short review will be to focus on those aspects of aerosol exchange which are of importance to the BIATEX community in order to aid in the assessment of acidic or alkaline deposition, from dry and wet aerosol (in the form of cloud or fog droplets) over Europe with an eye to the larger scale processes in which aerosols play a critical role. One of the important goals of the Biatex program, emphasised by its co-ordinator, has been the necessity to deliver information about these processes which are “useful” to wider interests, in particular the modelling community. In light of the co-ordinators plea for “immediately useful information” a detailed summary of parameterisations which have been forthcoming in BIATEX and related programmes for both dry and wet aerosol deposition are listed in the Appendix.
Within the BIATEX program paniculate deposition has not received as much attention as has trace gas exchange and is an area which still requires much investigation. Encouragingly, recent work reported at the EUROTRAC BIATEX workshop in Madrid, 1995, has produced reliable parameterisations that are now well supported by a growing experimental database. The results reported were obtained using very different instrumentation and measurement techniques and this strengthened the final conclusions drawn. The oft held view that there is significant disagreement surrounding dry deposition measurements would appear to recede in the light of these results. In particular there has been pleasing agreement between measurements of dry deposition velocity, V d, for aerosols to forest canopies by micrometeorological techniques and throughfall-stemflow or surface type measurements quoted in the literature. The eddy correlation (EC) technique employed for aerosol flux measurements which has often been plagued by susceptibility to low-frequency contamination and instrumental limitations has significantly benefited from the work of Lamaud et al. (1994) who show that aerosol fluxes cannot be “blindly” computed using the analysis techniques generally used for trace gas fluxes.
We are now confident that the dry deposition velocity is well defined by measurement for typical atmospheric aerosol loadings, probably better than to within a factor of 2. Gaps still exist in our understanding of the detailed particle size dependence for the various physical transport processes in the crucial size region 0.1–1.0 μm. The classical model picture handed down to us, and based on wind tunnel data does not take into account the influence of e.g. stability and related burst effects, and would appear to underestimate deposition velocities in this size range for rough vegetation. It still remains for the latest experimental results to be compared in detail with the latest models, which are now beginning to address this discrepancy by the inclusion of additional transport mechanisms.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Aalst, R.M. van (1986). Dry deposition of aerosol particles. In: S.D. Lee, T. Scheider, L.D. Grant, PJ. Verkerk (eds), Aerosols. Lewis Publ., Chelsea (MI), pp. 933–949.
ApSimon, H.M., Kruse, M., Bell, J.N.B (1987) Ammonia emissions and their role in acid deposition. Atmos.Environ. 21, 1947–1987.
Asman W.A.H., Jaarsveld, H.A. van (1991). A variable-resolutio statistical transport model applied to ammonia and ammonium. RIVM, Bilthoven, report 228471007.
Bache, D.H. (1979). Particle transpor within plant canopies. II prediction of deposition velocities. Atmos. Environ. 13, 1681–1687.
Belot, Y., Bailie, A., Delmas, J.L., (1976), Modéle numérique de dispersion des pollutants atmosphérique en présence de couverts végétaux. Atmos.Environ. 10, 89–98.
Bache, D.H. (1979) Particle Transport Within Plant canopies-I. A Framework for Analysis. Atmos. Environ. 13, 1257–1262.
Bache, D.H. (1979) Particle Transport Within Plant canopies — II Prediction of Deposition Velocities. Atmos. Environ. 13, 1681–1687.
Beswick, K.M., Hargreaves, K.J., Gallagher, M.W., Choularton, T.W., Fowler, D., (1991) Size-resolved measurements of cloud droplet deposition velocity to a canopy using an eddy correlation technique. Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 117, 623–645.
Beswick, K.M., M.W. Gallagher, P. Hummelshøj, K. Pilegard, N.O. Jensen, J. Duyzer (1994) Aerosol exchange to Speulder Forest. in: P.M. Borrell, P. Borrell, T. Cvitaš, W. Seiler (eds), Proc. EUROTRAC Symp.’ 94, SPB Academic Publishing bv, The Hague 1994, pp. 683–688.
Beswick, K.M. (1990) Measurements of Cloud Water Deposition to Forests and Moorland. PhD Thesis. University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology.
Bower, K.N., Wells, M., Choularton, T.W., Sutton, M.A. (1995) A Model of Ammonia/Ammonium Conversion and Deposition in a Hill Cap Cloud. Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 121, 569–591.
van Breeman, N., Burrough, P.A., Velthorst, E.J., van Dobben, H.F., de Wit, T., Ridder, T.B. Reijnders, H.F.R. (1982) Soil acidification from atmospheric ammonium sulfate in forest canopy throughfall. Nature 299, 548–550.
Brueckmann, A. (1988). Radionuklidbilanz von 4 Waldoekosystemen nach dem Reaktorunfall in Tschernobyl und eine Bestimmung der trockenen Deposition. Diplomarbeit Forstwissenschaftlicher Fachbereich, Göttingen.
Chamberlain, A.C., (1960), Aspects of the deposition of radioactive and other gases and particles. Int. J. Air. Pollut. 3, 63–68.
Chamberlain, A.C. (1966), Transport of Gases to and from Grass and Grass-Like Surfaces, Proc. Roy. Soc. London A, 236–265.
Chamberlain, A.C. (1975), The moverment of particles in plant communities. In: J.L. Monteith (ed), Vegetation and the Atmosphere, Academic Press, London, Vol.1, pp. 155–201.
Chamberlain, A.C.(1983), Deposition and Resuspension. In: Prupacher et al (eds), Precipitation Scavenging, Dry Deposition and Resuspension. Elsevier Science Publishing Co.Inc.
Coe, H., Choularton, T.W., Carruthers, D.J., Gallagher, M.W., Bower, K.N. (1991) A model off occult deposition applicable to complex terrain. Quart. J. Roy.Met Soc. 117, 803–823.
Collett, J. Jr., Lovinelli, R., Demoz, B.(1995) A Three-stage cloud impactor for size resolved measurements of cloud drop chemistry. (1995), Atmos.Environ, in press.
Collett, J. Jr., Oberholzer, B., Staehelin, J. (1993) Cloud Chemistry at Mt. Rigi, Switzerland: dependence on drop size and relationship to precipitation chemistry, Atmos. Environ. 27A, 3–42.
Collett, J.L. Jr., Bator, A., Rao, X., Demoz, B.B. (1994) Acidity variations across the cloud drop size spectrum and their influence on rates of atmospheric sulfate production. Geophys. Res. Lett. 21, 2393–2396.
Davidson, C.L, Miller, J.M., Pleskow, M.A. (1982) The influence of surface structure on predicted particle dry deposition to natural grass canopies. Water Air and Soil Pollut.18, 25–44.
Dollard, J.G., Unsworth, M.H., Harvey, M.J. (1983), Pollutant transfer in upland regions by occult deposition. Nature. 302, 241–247.
Dröscher, F., Nickel, J., Mikisch, E., (1989) Measurement of dew and fogwater deposition in forest stands. In: H.-W. Georgii (ed), Mechanisms and Effects of Pollutant-Transfer into Forests, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp, 205-212.
Duan, B. C.W. Fairall, D.W. Thomson, (1988), Eddy Correlation Measurements of the Dry Deposition of Particles in Wintertime J. App. Met. 27, 642–52.
Duyzer, J.H, H.L.M Verhagen, J.H. Westrate, F.C. Bosveld (1992), Measurement of the dry deposition flux of NH3 onto coniferous forest. Environ. Pollut. 75, 3–13.
Duyzer, J.H., Bosveld, F.C. (1988) Measurements of the dry deposition of fluxes of O3, NOx, SO2, and particles over grass/heathland vegetation and the influence of surface inhomogeneity. MT-TNO Delft, report R 88/111.
Duyzer, J., Westrate, H., Beswick, K., Gallagher, M.W., (1994), Measurements of the dry deposition flux of sulfate and nitrate aerosols to the Speulderbos using Micrometeorological Methods. TNO Report TNO-MW-R 94/255 Oct.21, 1994 Dutch Priority Programme on Acidification, TNO Institute of Environmental Sciences, P.O.Box 6011, NL-2600 JA, Delft Netherlands.
Duyzer, J.H., J.H. Westrate, H.S.M.A. Dierderen, A. Vermetten, P. Hofschreuder, P. Wyers, F.C. Bosveld, J.W. Erisman, (1994) The deposition of acidifying compounds and ozone to the Speulderbos derived from gradient measurements in 1989 and 1989. TNO Report R94/095.
Duyzer, J.H., Bowman, A.M.H., Diederen, H.M.S.A., von Aalst, R.M. (1987), Measurements of dry deposition of NH3 and NH4 over natural terrains. Research Report no. R87/273, Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO).
Duyzer, J., H. Westrate, K. Beswick, M. Gallagher, (1994). Measurements of the dry deposition flux of sulfate and nitrate aerosols to the Speulderbos using Micrometeorological Methods. TNO Report, TNO-MW-R 94/244, Oct. 21, 1994 No. 51628, Dutch Priority Programme on Acidification.
Duyzer, J.H., Bosveld, F.C. (1988) Measurements of the dry deposition of fluxes of O3, NOx, SO2, and particles over grass/heathland vegetation and the influence of surface inhomogeneity. MT-TNO Delft, report R 88/111.
Erisman, J.W. (1993) Acid deposition onto nature areas in the Netherlands. Part I: Throughfall measurements compared to deposition estimates. Water Air and Soil Pollut. 71, 51–80.
Erisman, J.W., Mennen, M.G., Hogenkamp, J.E.M. Kemkers, E., Goedhart, D., van Pul, W.A.J., Boermans, G.M.F., Duyzer, J.H., Wyers, G.P. (1993). Evaluation of dry deposition measurements for monitoring applicatiom over the Speulder forest. RIVM, Bilthoven, report 722108002.
Fairall, C.W. (1984), Interpretation of Eddy Correlation Measurements of Particulate Deposition and Aerosol flux. Atmos. Environ. 18, 1329–37.
Fitzgerald, J.W. (1975) Approximation formulas for the equilibrium size of an aerosol particle as a function of its dry size and composition and the ambient relative humidity. J. App. Met. 14, 1044–1049.
Fontan, J., Lopez, A, Lamaud, E., Druilhet, A, (1995) Vertical Flux Measurements of the Sub-Micronic Aerosol Particles and Parameterization of the Dry Deposition Velocity, this volume.
Fowler, D., Duyzer, J.H., Baldocchi, D.D. (1991) Inputs of Trace Gases, Particles and Cloud Droplets to Terrestrial Surfaces. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 97B, 35–59.
Fowler, D., Gallagher, M.W., Lovett, G.M. (1992), Wet, Cloud Water and Fog Deposition”, In: G.Lövland, J.W. Erisman, D.Fowler (eds), Models and Methods for the Quantification of Atmospheric Input to Ecosystems, Nordiske Seminar-og Arbejds-rapporter, pp. 51-74.
Fowler, D., Cape, J.N., Unsworth, M.H., (1989), Deposition of Atmospheric Pollutants on Forests, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London B324, 247–265.
Fowler, D., Cape, J.N., Leith, I.D., Choularton, T.W., Gay, M.J., Jones, A. (1988). The influence of altitude on rainfall composition at Great Dun Fell. Atmos.Environ. 22, 1355–1362.
Gallagher, M. (1995). Deposition of Aerosol to Forests: Measurements from the Speulderbos Experiment. EUROTRAC BIATEX workshop on Deposition and Biogenic Emission, Madrid, January 16–17, 1995.
Gallagher, M.W., Choularton, T.W., Morse, A.P., Fowler, D. (1988) Measurements of the size dependence of cloud droplet deposition at a hill site. Quart J. Roy. Met. Soc. 114, 1291–1303.
Gallagher, M.W., Beswick, K.M., Choularton, T.W., Coe, H., Fowler, D., Hargreaves, K. (1992). Measurements and Modelling of Cloudwater Deposition to Moorland and Forests. Environ. Pollut. 75, 97–107.
Gallagher, M.W., Beswick, K.M. and Choularton, T.W. (1992). Measurements and modelling of cloud water deposition to a snow covered forest. Atmos. Environ. 26A, 2893–2904.
Gallagher, M.W., T.W. Choularton, A. Wicks, K.M. Beswick, H. Coe, M. Sutton, D. Fowler, J. Duyzer, P. Wyers (1992) Measurements of aerosol exchange to Heather Moor. in: P.M. Borrell, P. Borrell, T. Cvitaš, W. Seiler (eds), Proc. EUROTRAC Symp.’ 92, SPB Academic Publishing bv, The Hague 1993, pp. 694–69
Garland, J.A., Cox, L.C, (1982) Deposition of small particles to grass,. Atmos. Environ. 16, 2699–2702.
Gould, T.R., Davidson, C.I. (1992) Variability and uncertainty in particle dry deposition modelling. In: S.E. Schwarz, W.G.N. Slinn (eds), Precipitation scavenging and atmosphere-surface exchange processes. Hemisphere pub., Washington DC pp. 1125–1142.
Grosch, S., Schmitt, G. (1988) Experimental Investigations on the Deposition of Trace Elements in Forest Area, in: Grefen, K., Löbel, L. (eds), Environmental Meteorology, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 201-216.
Hatakayama, S., Izumi, K., Fukuyama, T., Akimoto, H. (1989) Reactions of ozone with α-pinene and β-pinene in air: yields of gaseous and particulate products. J. Geophys. Res. 94, 13013–13024.
Hicks, B.B., Baldocchi, D.D., Meyers, A.J.T.P., Hosker, R.P., Matt, D.R. (1987). A preliminary multiple resistance routine for deriving dry deposition velocities from measured quantities. Water Air and Soil Pollut. 36, 311–330.
Hicks, B.B. (1984). Deposition both Wet and Dry. in: Hicks (ed), Acid Precipitation Series Vol. 4. Butterworth.
Hinds, W.C., (1982) Aerosol technology, properties, behaviour and measurement of airborne particles. John Wiley and Sons.
Hoefken, K.D., Gravenhorst, G. (1983) Utersuchung ueber die Deposition Atmosphaerischer Spurenstoffe an Buchen-und Fichten Wald. In UBA — Berichte 6/83, Teil II, Schmidt-Verlag, Berlin.
Hori, T. (ed), (1953), Studies on Fogs. Tanne Trading Co. Hokaido, Sapporro.
Hummelshøj, P., Jensen, N.O., Larsen, S.E. (1992). Particle Dry Deposition to a Sea Surface. In: Schwarz, S.E., Slinn, W.G.N. (eds), Precipitation Scavenging and Atmosphere-Surface Exchange, Vol. 2. Hemisphere Pub.Corp. USA, pp. 892–840.
Hummelshøj, P. (1992) Dry Deposition of Particles and Gases, Ph.D.Thesis RISØ National Laboratory Denmark, 1992.
Hummelshøj, P., Ruijgrok, W., Semb, A., Westling, O., Wyers, P. (1992) Working Group report on dry depositon of particles. In: G. Lövland, J.W. Erisman, D. Fowler (eds), Models and Methods for the Quantification of Atmospheric Input to Ecosystems, Nordiske Seminar-og Arbejds-rapporter, 1993:573 pp. 33-35.
Ibrahim, M., Barrie, L.A., Fanaki, K., (1983), An experimental and theoretical investigation of the dry deposition of particles to snow, pine trees and artificial collectors. Atmos. Environ. 17, 781–788.
Izumi, K., Fukuyama, T. (1990) Photochemical Aerosol Formation from Armatic Hydrocarbons in the presence of Nox. Atmos. Environ. 24A, 1433–1441.
Iversen, T., Halvorsen, N., Mylona, S., Sandnes, H. (1991). Calculated budgets for airborne acidifying components in Europe. EMEP Meteorological Synthesizing Centre West, Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Oslo.
IPCC (1992) Climate Change 1992, in: Houghton et al. (eds), Supplement Report to IPCC Scientific Assessment, Cambridge University Press.
Johnson, A.H., (1987), Deterioration of red spruce in the northern Appalachian Mountains. In: T.C. Hutchison, K.M. Meema (eds), Effects of atmospheric pollutants on forests, wetlands and agricultural ecosystems, NATO ASI series, vol. 916 Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg pp. 83–99.
Joutsenoja, T. (1992), Measurements of Aerosol Deposition to a Cereal Crop. In: Choularton, T.W. (ed), Measurements and Modelling of Gases and Aerosols to Complex Terrain — NERC Report 1992, GR3/7259 A.P.I. Appendix XI.2.
Katen, P.C., Hubbe, J.M., (1983), Size resolved measurements by eddy correlation of the dry deposition velocity of atmospheric aerosols. In: Pruppacher, Semonin, R.G., Slinn, W.G. (eds), Precipitation Scavenging, Dry Deposition and Resuspension, Elsevier Science Publishing Co. New York pp. 953–961.
Kowalski, A.S., Anttioni, P.M., Vong, R.J., Delany, A.C., Maclean, G.D. (1996) Deployment an evaluation of a system for ground-based measurements of cloud liquid water turbulent fluxes. To be submitted.
Krause, G.M.H., Arndt, U., Brandt, D.J., Bucher, J., Kenk, G., Matzner, E., (1986), Forest decline in Europe: development and possible causes. Water Air Soil Pollut. 31, 647–688.
Kroll, G., Winkler, P. Trace substance input to coniferous forests via cloud interception. (1989) In: H.-W. Georgii (ed), Mechanisms and Effects of Pollutant-Transfer into Forests, Kluwer Academic Publishers pp. 205-212.
Lamaud, E., Y. Brunet, A. Labatut, A. Lopez, J. Fontan, A. Druilhet, (1994a) The Landes Experiment: Biosphere-Atmosphere Exchanges of Ozone and Aerosol Particles Above a Pine Forest, J. Geophys.Res. 99D8, 16511–16521.
Lamaud, E., A. Labatut, J. Fontan, A. Lopez, A. Druilhet, Y. Brunet, (1994b) Biosphere Atmosphere exchanges: Ozone and aerosol dry deposition velocities over a pine forest. Non CO2 greenhouse gases. Why and how to control. Maastricht, Environmental Monitoring Assessment 31, 175–181.
Lamaud, E., J. Fontan, A. Lopez, A. Druilhet, (1994c) Parameterization of the dry deposition velocity of sub-micron aerosol particles. Air Pollution II, Vol 2. Pollution Control and Monitoring. Computational Mechanics Publications, Southamption, Boston pp 433–40.
Lelieveld, J., Heintzenberg, (1992) Sulfate cooling effect on climate through in-cloud oxidation of anthropogenic SO2. Science. 258, 117–12.
Little, P. (1977) Deposition of 2.75, 5.0 and 8.5 μm particles to plant and soil surfaces. Environ. Pollut. 12, 293–305.
Lewellen, W.S. (1985). Modeling Turbulent Exchange in Forest Canopies. In: Hutchison, B.A., Hicks, B.B. (eds), The Forest-Atmosphere Interaction, pp.481-499.
Lindberg, S.E., Lovett, G.M. (1985) Field measurements of particle dry deposition rates to foliage and inert surfaces in a forest canopy,. Environ. Sci. and Tech. 19, 238–244.
Lorenz, R., Murphy JR, C.E., (1989), Dry Deposition of Particles to a Pine Plantation. Boundary-Layer Met. 46, 355–366.
Lövblad, G. (1992). Mapping deposition over Sweden. In. Schwartz, S.E., Slinn, W.G.N. (eds), Precipitation scavenging and atmosphere surface exchange processes. Hemisphere. Publ. Washington DC pp. 1533–1542.
Lovett, G.M. (1981) Forest Structure and Atmospheric Interactions. Predictive Models for Subalpine Fir Forests. Ph.D. Thesis, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire.
Lovett, G.M. (1984). Rates and mechanisms of cloud water deposition to a subalpine balsam fir forest. Atmos. Environ. 19, 361–371.
Lovett, G.M. (1986). Canopy structure and cloud water deposition in a subalpine coniferous forest. Tellus 36, 319–327.
Milne, R., Crossley, A., Unsworth, M.H. (1989), Physics of cloudwaterdeposition and evaporation at Castlelaw, S.E. Scotland. In: M.H. Unsworth, D. Fowler (eds), Acid deposition processes at high elevation sites. Klewer, Dordrecht pp.299–307.
Murphy, C.E. JR, Lorenz, R., (1985) Analysis of Forest Environmental Measurements to Estimate Parameters of Microclimate and Air Pollution Deposition Velocity Models. In: Hutchison, B.A., Hicks, B.B. (eds), The Forest-Atmosphere Interaction, pp. 383-393
Neumann, H.H., Den Hartog, G. (1985) Eddy correlation measurements of Atmospheric fluxes of ozone, sulfur and particulates during the Champaign Intercomparison Study. J. Geophys. Res. 90D1, 2097–2110.
Nicholson, K.W. (1988) The dry deposition of small particles: a review of experimental measurements. Atmos. Environ. 22, 2653–2666.
Noone, K.J., Charlson, R.J., Covert, D.S, Ogren, J.A., Heintzenberg, J., (1988) Chemical composition differences in fog and cloud droplets of different sizes. J. Geophys. Res. 93, 9477–9482.
Noone, K.J., Covert, D.S, Ogren, J.A., Heintzenberg, J., (1990) An examination of clouds at a mountain-top site in central Sweden: the distribution of solute within cloud droplets. Atmos. Res. 25, 3–15.
Ogren, J.A., Charlson, R.J., (1992) Implications for models and measurements of chmeical inhomogeneities among cloud droplets, Tellus 44B, 208–225,.
Ogren, J.A., Heintzenberg, J., Zuber, A, Noone, K.J., Charlson, R.J., (1989) Measurements of the size dependence of solute concentrations in cloud droplets, Tellus 41B, 24–31.
Ogren, J.A., Noone, K.J., Hallberg, J., Heintzenberg, J., Schell, D., Berner, A., Solly, I., Kruisz, C, Reischle, G., Arends, B.G., Wobrock, (1992) Measurements of the size dependence of the concentration of non-volatile material in fog droplets, Tellus 44B, 570–580.
Peters, K., Eiden, R (1992) Modelling the dry deposition velocity of aerosol particles to a spruce forest. Atmos. Environ. 26A, 2555–2564.
RGAR (1987) Acid Deposition in the UK 1981-1985. In The Second Report of the UK Review Group on Acid Rain. Stevenage: Warren Spring Laboratory 104 pp.
RGAR (1990) Acid Deposition in the UK 1986-1988. In The Third Report of the UK Review Group on Acid Rain. Stevenage: Warren Spring Laboratory 104 pp.
RGIND (1994) UK Review Group on Impacts of Nitrogen Deposition on Terrestrial Ecosystems. Pitcairn, C.E.R. (ed), UK Dept. of Environ.
Ruijgrok, W., H. Tieben, P. Eisinga, (1994). Dry Deposition of Acidiyinf and Alkaline Particles to Douglas Fir — A Comparison of Measurements and Model Results. KEMA Report Dutch Priority Programme on Acidification. 20159-KES/MLU 94-3216 No 83397. KC.17-94P02.
Ruijgrok, W., Nicholson, K.W., Davidson, C.I. (1993) Dry Deposition of Particles, In: G. Lövland, J.W. Erisman, D. Fowler (eds), Models and Methods for the Quantification of Atmospheric Input to Ecosystems, Nordiske Seminar-og Arbejds-rapporter, 1993:573 Appendix 5, pp 145-162.
Ruijgrok, W., (1992) Uncertainty in models calculating the dry deposition of aerosols to forests. In: N. Fukuta and P.E. Wagner (eds) Nucleation and atmospheric aerosols. Deepak Publ., Hampton pp. 481–85.
Sehmel, G. (1973). Particle Eddy Diffusivities and Deposition Velocities for isothermal Flow and Smooth Surfaces. Aerosol Sciences 4, 125–138.
Sehmel, G. (1980) Particle and Gas Dry Deposition: A Review. Atmos. Environ. 14, 983–1011.
Sehmel, G.A., Hodgson, W.H. (1980) A Model for predicting dry deposition of particles and gases to environmental surfaces. In AICHE Symposium Series 76, pp 218–230.
Seinfeld, J.H. (1986) Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics of Air Pollution. Wiley Interscience Publication, New York, USA.
Shuttleworth, W.J. (1977), The exchange of wind driven fog and mist between vegetation and the atmosphere. Boundary-Layer Met. 12, 463–489.
Sievering, H. (1982) Profile measurements of Particle Dry Deposition Velocity at an Air-Land Interface. Atmos. Environ. 16, 301–306.
Sievering, H. (1983) Eddy Flux and Profile measurements of Small particle dry-deposition velocity at the Boulder Atmospheric Observatory. In: Pruppacher, Semonin, R.G., Slinn, W.G. (eds), Precipitation Scavenging, Dry Deposition and Resuspension, pp. 963-977.
Sievering, H. (1987) Small particle dry deposition under high wind speed conditions: eddy flux measurements at the Boulder Atmospheric Observatory. Atmos. Environ. 21, 2179–2185.
Sievering, H. (1988) Small-Particle Dry Deposition Measurements: A comparison of Gradient and Eddy-Flux Techniques over Agricultural Fields. In: Annual Meeting of Air Pollution Central Association, Dallas, Texas, June 19-24, 1988, 6, 88–101.
Slinn, W.G., L. Hasse, B.N. Hicks, A.W. Hogan, D. Lai, P.S. Liss, K.O. Munnich, G.A. Sehmel, O. Vittori. (1978) Some Aspects of the Transfer of Atmospheric Trace Constituents past the Air-Sea Interface. Atmos. Environ. 12, 2055–2087.
Slinn, W.G.N. (1982) Predictions for Paricle Deposition to Vegetative Canopies. Atmos. Environ. 16, 1785–1794.
Slinn, W.G.N. (1983) A Potpourri of Deposition and Resuspension Questions. In: Pruppacher, Semonin, R.G., Slinn, W.G.N. (eds), Precipitation Scavenging, Dry Deposition and Resuspension, Elsevier Science Publishing Co., New York pp. 1361–1416.
Seinfeld, J.H. (1986) Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics of Air Pollution. John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Spyros, N., Pandis, S.N. et al. (1991) Aerosol formation in the Photooxidation of isoprene and β-pinene. Atmos. Environ. 25A, 997–1008.
Sutton, M. (1995). Generalised description of ammonia exchange. EUROTRAC BIATEX workshop on Deposition and Biogenic Emission, Madrid, January 16–17, 1995.
Twomey, S. (1977) Atmospheric Aerosols, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co.
Unsworth, M.H., (1984) Evaporation from forests in cloud enhances the effects of acid deposition. Nature 312, 262–264.
Unsworth, M.H., Crossley, A. (1987) Capture of wind-driven cloud by vegetation. In: P.J. Coughrey, M.H. Martin, M.H. Unsworth (eds), Pollutant transfer and fate in ecosystems British Ecological Society special publication no. 6, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford pp. 125–137.
Vincent, J.H. (1989) Aerosol Sampling: Science and Practice. John Wiley Sons.
Vong, Richard J., Andrew S. Kowalski, (1995). Eddy Correlation Measurements of Size-Dependent Cloud Droplet Turbulent Fluxes to Forest, Tellus, accepted.
Vong, R.J., Bailey, B.H., Markus, M.J., Mohnen, V.A. (1990), Factors governing cloud water composition in the Appalachian mountains. Tellus 42B, 435–453.
Vong, R.J., Mohnen, V., Kadlecek, J., Bailey, B., Mueller, S., Meagher, J., Baumgardner, R. (1990). Network Measurements of Droplet Deposition of Atmospheric Pollutants. In: D. Sisterson (ed), NAPAP State of Science and Technology Report No. 6, National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program Washington, DC, June 1990.
Vong, R. (1991) Cloud water deposition to Appalachian Forests. Environ. Sci.Technol. 25,6, 1014–1021.
Wang et al. (1992a) Aerosol Formation and Growth in Atmospheric Organic NOx Systems-I. Outdoor Smog Chamber Studies of C7 and C8 Hydrocarbons. Atmos. Environ. 26A, 403–420.
Wang et al. (1992b) Aerosol Formation and Growth in Atmospheric Organic NOx Systems-II. Aerosol Dynamics. Atmos. Environ. 26A, 421–434.
Warraghai, A. and G. Gravenhorst.(1989), Dry Deposition of Atmospheric Particles to an Old Spruce Stand. In: H.-W. Georgii (ed), Mechanisms and Effects of Pollutant-Transfer into Forests, Kluwer Academic Publishers pp. 77-86.
Wesely, M.L., Hicks, B.B., Dannevik, W.P., Frisella, S., Husar, R.B. (1977) An eddy correlation measurement of particulate deposition from the atmosphere. Atmos. Environ. 11, 561–563.
Wesely, M.L. Cook, D.R., Hart, R.L. (1983). Fluxes of Gases and Particles Above a Deciduous Forest in Wintertime. Boundary Layer Met. 27, 237–255.
Wesely, M.L. Cook, D.R., Hart, R.L. (1983). Fluxes of Gases and Particles Above a Deciduous Forest in Wintertime. Boundary Layer Met. 27, 237–255.
Westrate, H., Duyzer, J., (1994) Evaluation of the gradient method for use in monitoring dry depositiion at Speuld based on measurements for ozone. TNO — IMW Delft Report, R94-104.
Whitby, K.T., Cantrell, B. (1976) Fine Particles, in: Int.Conf. on Environmental Sensing and Assessment, Las Vegas, NV, IEEE.
Williams, R.M., (1982) A model for the dry deposition of particles to natural water surfaces. Atmos. Environ. 17, 1933–1938.
Wiman, B.L.B., Agren, G.I. (1985). Aerosol depletion and deposition in forests — a model analysis. Atmos. Environ. 19, 335–36
Wyers, P. (1995). Overview of Ammonia and Aerosols. EUROTRAC BIATEX Workshop on Deposition and Biogenic Emission, Madrid, January 16–17, 1995.
Wyers, G.P. Veltkamp, Vermeulen, A.T., Geusebroek, M., Wayers, A., Möls, J.J., (1994), Deposition of Aerosol to Coniferous Forest. ECN Report December-C-94-051, Netherlands Energy Research Foundation.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1997 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Gallagher, M. et al. (1997). Atmospheric Particles and their Interactions with Natural Surfaces. In: Slanina, S. (eds) Biosphere-Atmosphere Exchange of Pollutants and Trace Substances. Transport and Chemical Transformation of Pollutants in the Troposphere, vol 4. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-03394-4_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-03394-4_3
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-08273-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-662-03394-4
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive