Abstract
The fundamental challenges in developing city brands are of diverse nature. Brand creators must, firstly, have the willingness and ability to align general knowledge about brand development and implementation with the specific requirements to apply in the urban case. The responsible city politicians must, secondly, have a nominal understanding that the development of a city brand can be a sensible or even necessary part of successful city politics. In addition, there must be a willingness to make the necessary effort—financially, temporally, and politically. Finally, thirdly, both actors—city politicians and brand creators—must engage in a fruitful and purposeful exchange with each other, which exceeds the complexity of the ‘classic’ relationship between client and contractor in brand development—at least gradually. None of the three conditions for success is banal, trivial, or can be ‘automatically’ assumed as given. On the contrary. Under what conditions city brands can nevertheless be successfully developed is discussed in this chapter.
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Notes
- 1.
A good overview of the debate is provided by Jacobs, 2016.
- 2.
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilbao-Effekt. Accessed on 16.12.2020.
- 3.
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Love_New_York_(advertising campaign). Accessed on 1.2.2023.
- 4.
- 5.
For the complete work, see Papadopoulos and Cleveland (2021a).
- 6.
So also the location determination by Zenker and Govers (2016, p. 3): “Some have asked whether place branding is worth the effort […]. If, in practice, nobody really owns the brand and policymakers lack the power to really influence it, then why should anybody care? If successes are hard to measure, but policymakers demand hard numbers to prove the effective investment of public and private resources, then why should we try?”
- 7.
A short and interesting presentation of the genesis of the ‘discipline’ of city brand development (as part of the more comprehensive place branding) since the 1950s is provided by Hankinson, 2010, pp. 300–307. He describes the process of the scientific engagement with brands, marketing, and urban development growing together. The development and status of the broader scientific field of place branding is described very critically by Gertner, 2011. Of the 212 articles he analyzed for the period from 1990-2009, he recommends reading only twelve articles in the end.
- 8.
For an example, see a film review in the New York Times of January 9, 2009 titled: “Seeking the Essence of Japan? Look to Germany.“ https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/11/movies/11stua.html. Accessed on September 7, 2021.
- 9.
Even if for the (typical) German hero in the film Cherry Blossoms “the Fuji is just a mountain in the end“.
- 10.
See Yuriko and Mika (2019, pp. 182–193).
- 11.
Accessed on January 2, 2023.
- 12.
See the second Olympic Summer Games held in Tokyo: Holthus et al., 2020 as well as the two special issues in The Asian Pacific Journal: Japan Focus: Part I: https://apjjf.org/2020/4/APJ.html and Part II: https://apjjf.org/2020/5/APJ.html. Accessed on March 9, 2023.
- 13.
This is not assumed in the development of a product or corporate brand. In these cases, in the event of a conflict, the affected organization members are systematically advised to exit. This option should not (actually) be imposed on residents under democratic conditions. Nevertheless, this is also tacitly accepted in many projects for the development of a city brand (see, for example, Venice or general projects of gentrification).
- 14.
- 15.
But even this can succeed under very specific conditions and with very large efforts: this would then be (after the Bilbao effect) the Dubai moment (Portes and Armony (2023), p. 136).
- 16.
Which, in turn, is conceptually thought and done in practice in many other areas of the brand concept.
- 17.
There have indeed been occasional attempts to make Venice more automobile-friendly. For one of these roads not taken, see: https://www.ilgazzettino.it/nordest/venezia/auto_in_canal_grande_venezia_progetto_per_asfaltare_canale-6344324.html?refresh_ce. Accessed on 1.2.2023.
- 18.
The text introduces the exciting collection of essays on the relationship between “city images and burdens of the past” (Eisenhut & Sabrow, 2017).
- 19.
Numerous scientific observers see (at least in Germany) a trend in the opposite direction: “the scope for independent municipal action is increasingly being restricted by centralization processes emanating from the federal government and the respective federal state” (Schäfers, 2006, p. 310). For more details, see Siebel, 2015, pp. 42–53. The conclusion there: “The city is changing from a political subject to an object of supra-local processes and policies. It can only control its development to a limited extent” (p. 51).
- 20.
Even in this perspective, which analytically assigns cities a rather passive victim role, in the end at least something like joyful interest in the diversity of the ‘urban’ can arise: “I do hope that I will be able to convey also something of the excitement at learning about cities and their diversity in time and space” (Therborn, 2017, p. 4).
- 21.
The most frequently mentioned role models: the duo Haussmann-Napoléon III in Paris, Robert Moses in NewYork, Sheikh Mohammed in Dubai, the Mori family in Tokyo. Upon closer inspection, the situation there also quickly becomes much more complicated (see Kirkland, 2013, Sennett, 2018, Rutledge, 2002, Mori, 2015). In any case, these are only the very rare exceptions to the rule most commonly encountered.
- 22.
Making hopelessness the core idea of the city brand should and may remain the (curious) exception (the Finnish village of Puolanka with its slogan on the signs before the village: You can still turn back!): https://www.nzz.ch/international/puolanka-in-finnland-stadt-land-graben-schafft-pessimismus-ld.1640237?reduced=true.
- 23.
The opposite situation (the city brand is seemingly irreversibly ruined) is categorically more difficult to grasp. Actually, the attempt to improve the perception of a brand is always ‘worthwhile’. Only considerations of opportunity or moral concerns might argue against it. However, it should also be noted that the solution otherwise technically intended for such hopeless cases (the complete rebranding) is hardly applicable to a city.
- 24.
The (self-)understanding of the city as a ‘company’ is therefore both to be assumed and to be expected as a consequence when cities seriously strive to become a brand. Cf. Sect. 3.2.
- 25.
A worthwhile essay on “use and abuse of narrative”.
- 26.
However, this does not always have to be the case. Occasionally, the imparting of meaning is done by the users (cf. the fundamental discussion of this topic in Rommerskirchen, 2018).
- 27.
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinnwandmoderation;https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szenariotechnik. Accessed on 15.12.2020.
- 28.
Fundamental to the meaning of the concept of the horizon in the context of human future visions: Luhmann, 1976, pp. 139–141.
- 29.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_city. Accessed on 3.1.2022. According to the Google Books Ngram Viewer, world city was the more common term in the English-speaking world compared to global city until 1996, today the latter dominates. The term is not merely understood here as one of the possible translations of Weltstadt. World and global city are conceptually charged terms. It is also important to note that the following explanations cannot be easily applied to ‘cities’ as such, to all cities or to every city.
- 30.
For a longer history of this context see Osterhammel, 2009, pp. 356–464.
- 31.
The Anholt-Ipsos City Brand Index, for example, is based on the opinions of 5,000 respondents in ten countries (Japan is missing, South Korea is included) on 50 predetermined cities (among the cities, Zurich is missing, Basel and Geneva are listed. Berlin and Munich belong to the “second tier” (places 11–20). https://www.ipsos.com/en/2020-anholt-ipsos-city-brand-index. Accessed on 26.2.2022.
- 32.
Then (in the chapter Methodology) little is said about the concrete method in many words: “The City Brand Valuation Model (CBV model) established by the Global City Lab aims to estimate the brand value of a city through more comprehensive and advanced evaluation indicators to measure the brand strength of major cities in the world. The ‘Global Top 500 Cities’ list is compiled based on the city brand value calculated by the CBV model. The evaluation of the city brand value in the Global Top 500 Cities List involves an analysis of the city’s performance in six dimensions: economy, culture, governance, environment, talent and reputation. The Global City Lab innovatively incorporates city reputation indicators in the evaluation process, which helps us understand the city’s brand image with more details and assess the city’s external value and the future potential of brand development.” http://globalcitylab.com/us/us-method.html. Accessed on 3.2.2023.
- 33.
http://globalcitylab.com/us/us-aboutus.html. Accessed on 3.2.2023 (emphasis by us).
- 34.
- 35.
To put these impressive numbers into perspective (although they are certainly not directly comparable), here are the values of the world’s most valuable product and company brands: Apple $ 408 billion, Amazon $ 249 billion, Microsoft $ 210 billion, Google $ 198 billion, Samsung $ 74 billion. https://interbrand.com/best-global-brands/. Accessed on 7.1.2022. For an assessment of this ranking, see Häusler, 2021a, pp. 148–152.
- 36.
Interestingly, explicitly with a Marxist-materialist approach.
- 37.
We will have to return to these questions in the concluding Chapter 5.
- 38.
From the extensive literature on this, some recent meaningful titles as a selection: “Saving America’s Cities” (Cohen, 2019), “Fear City” (Phillips-Fein, 2017), “The Dying City” (Tochterman, 2017), “Vanishing New York” (Moss, 2018) and “New York, New York, New York. Four Decades of Success, Excess, and Transformation” (Dyia, 2021). A very brief presentation (and an economic explanation) is provided by Glaeser (2011, pp. 3–5). For Glaeser, New York is “the archetypical city […] a paradigm of urbanity […] The rise and fall of New York [in the long 1980s] introduces us to the central paradox of the modern metropolis” (p. 6).
- 39.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindsight_bias. Accessed on August 17, 2021. See also the dangers of retrospective consideration, overconfidence and supposed certainty in Daniel Kahneman, 2011, pp. 199–208.
- 40.
Even this impressive list may not be complete. It represents a widespread understanding from today’s perspective (shaped by the distortions due to the hindsight bias).
- 41.
From the numerous city rankings in which Tokyo occupies top positions, the following is selected: third place in the Global Power City Index 2022, Institute for Urban Strategies, The Mori Memorial Foundation, https://mori-m-foundation.or.jp/english/ius2/gpci2/index.shtml.https://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/global-liveability-index-2022/. Accessed on March 10, 2022.
- 42.
Akio Morita (1986), p. 1.
- 43.
The first few minutes of the documentary can be viewed here: https://www2.nhk.or.jp/archives/tv60bin/detail/index.cgi?das_id=D0009010022_00000. Accessed on August 17, 2021.
- 44.
Japan Air Lines had already opened an office on Fifth Avenue in New York in 1955 and advertised in the New York Times with “Step aboard—you’re in Japan” for their “Pacific Courier” flight connection to Tokyo. The New York Times, 28.02.1955, p. 12.
- 45.
The New York Times, 20.06.1960, p. 15.
- 46.
The New York Times, 21.07.1960, p. 2.
- 47.
The New York Times, 14.11.1960, p. 35.
- 48.
The New York Times, 26.07.1960, p. 58.
- 49.
The New York Times, 06.11.1960, p. 35.
- 50.
The New York Times, 03.07.1960, p. X15.
- 51.
The New York Times, 01.01.1960, p. 8.
- 52.
The New York Times, 03.08.1964, p. R1.
- 53.
The New York Times, 01.09.1960, p. 52.
- 54.
The New York Times, 02.10.1960, p. X33.
- 55.
The New York Times, 10.01.1960, p. 19.
- 56.
The New York Times, 12.02.1967, p. 15.
- 57.
The Washington Post, 17.04.1964, p. A14.
- 58.
The Complete Tokyo 1964 Olympics Film: https://youtu.be/WHt0eAdCCns. Accessed on: August 17, 2021.
- 59.
Eiko Maruko Siniawer, 2018, pp. 83–84.
- 60.
The Washington Post, 26.05.1963, p. K24.
- 61.
The New York Times, 19.01.1968, p. 52.
- 62.
The New York Times, 17.01.1969, p. C59.
- 63.
The New York Times, 17.12.1961, p. 41.
- 64.
The New York Times, 06.02.1966, p. 13.
- 65.
The New York Times, 17.04.1962, p. 30.
- 66.
The New York Times, 23.06.1964, p. A6.
- 67.
The New York Times, 06.02.1967, p. 30.
- 68.
The New York Times, 20.02.1969, p. 49.
- 69.
Tokyo Metropolitan Government, 1969, front flap text.
- 70.
Tokyo Metropolitan Government, 1973, p. 135.
- 71.
As claimed or at least assumed by Greenberg, 2008 or Jonas and Rahman (2009).
- 72.
Cynicism prevails: “Consumers will never completely trust marketers, no matter how much we protest our innocence or insist that we are working in the customer’s best interest. If anything, in fact, consumer scepticism is increased by improvements in marketing technology” (Brown, 2003, p. 132; current empirical data on this: Zerfaß and Wiesenberg, 2019, Wiesenberg & Zerfaß, 2020).
- 73.
For cities, this is usually the very first challenge: “A small municipality cannot position itself, it simply does not exist. We can only continue to be successful if we manage to become visible. Visible in the literal sense: A city like Stuttgart with its 600,000 inhabitants is not depicted on any globe” (Schuster, 2007, p. 389).
- 74.
He used the metaphor to develop his solution for the notorious so-called ‘base-superstructure problem’ in Marxist social theory, based on the statement that “economy is to society what anatomy is to the biological sciences” (Gramsci, 1992, p. 1326).
- 75.
A further elaboration of the metaphor: “In the human body, one certainly cannot say that the skin (and also the historically predominant type of physical beauty) are mere illusions, and the skeleton and anatomy are the only reality, […] that it is not the skeleton (in the narrow sense) that makes one fall in love with a woman, but one understands how the skeleton contributes to the grace of movements, etc.” (Gramsci, 1992, p. 1327). Neither ‘skinned’ nor ‘deboned’ would we humans be really attractive.
- 76.
The importance of the ‘skeleton’ becomes even clearer when one thinks of the ‘upright gait’ as a characteristic feature of humans and appearance as a key event in human evolution. For the city historian Karl Schlögel, city maps fulfill this function for cities: “They are like the skeleton, the bone structure, which defines the stature” (Schlögel, 2006, p. 310).
- 77.
https://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/psychology/psychology-and-psychiatry/gestalt. “Gestalt” should be understood here as going beyond the colloquial meanings: form, figure, structure, outline, appearance, etc. But on the other hand, we also do not need the entire theoretical building of Gestalt theory and the changing meanings in the history of ideas and concepts (cf. as a short introduction Diefenthaler, 2008 and for a more comprehensive use in connection with the brand topic Hartung, 2014).
- 78.
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolregion. Accessed on 13.2.2022.
- 79.
Very current: “Venetians argue about elevators in palaces: […] Ultimately, it is about whether Venice should be a museum or a livable city for the locals” (as reported by the Neue Zürcher Zeitung on 7.2.2022; digital: https://www.nzz.ch/panorama/italien-venedig-streitet-um-personenlifte-in-alten-palazzi-ld.1668254. Accessed on 12.2.2022.
- 80.
So says the downtown marketing association of Basel (until 2021 ‘Pro Innerstadt’) with the independent word/image brand StadtKonzeptBasel.https://stadtkonzeptbasel.ch/. Emphasis by us. Accessed on 13.2.2022.
- 81.
With its own word/image brand: https://stadtbonbasel.ch/. Accessed on 13.2.2022.
- 82.
Behind which probably stands Basel Tourism.https://www.basel.com/de. Accessed on 13.2.2022.
- 83.
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel. Accessed on 14.2.2022.
- 84.
https://www.basel.com/de. Accessed on 14.2.2022.
- 85.
https://www.bs.ch/. Accessed on 14.2.2022.
- 86.
BS stands for the canton abbreviation in Switzerland. In the Anglo-Saxon world, this abbreviation is less known for this. There, it is more likely: “If you describe something as BS, you are saying that it is nonsense or completely untrue. BS is an abbreviation for ‘bullshit’.” https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/bs#:~:text=If%20you%20describe%20something%20as,an%20abbreviation%20for%20’%20bullshit‘. Accessed on 14.2.2022.
- 87.
At first glance, there are certainly many more ‘representatives’ of the city of Basel with their own presence on the internet.
- 88.
Let’s use the analogy of the skeleton again: It would not benefit us humans if we were to make the individual bones of our skeleton more uniform. Neither functionally nor aesthetically.
- 89.
Consider, for example, the Virgin brand, which, contrary to any brand-technical logic, claims: “Whether in banking, travel, entertainment, health and fitness or communications the Virgin Brand has become one of the most desirable brands in the world.” (https://www.virgin.com/virgingroup/content/our-brand-0. Accessed on 28.12.2020). An obvious overstretch. Standardized professional brand consulting would certainly have prevented this (successful) brand structure at many points in its evolution.
- 90.
A German standard work describes the “construction of a new brand” as the well-coordinated interplay of “marking” and “brand communication” (Esch, 2018, p. 311).
- 91.
The prototypical definition of the American Marketing Association (1995) is enduringly effective: “A brand is a name, term, design, symbol, or any other feature that identifies one seller’s good or service as distinct from those of other sellers” (quoted from Govers, 2013, p. 71).
- 92.
The standard work mentioned thus also comprises almost 800 additional pages.
- 93.
Very few exceptions prove the rule. See for example Brasilia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Bras%C3%ADlia or Lampugnani, 2011, pp. 734–742 and Nowhere https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/summary/1718738. Accessed on 30.1.2022. In the world of literature, however, numerous possibilities open up and corresponding offers exist: ‘what do I call the fictional city I created?’ See https://worthstart.com/village-names/. Accessed on 30.1.2022.
- 94.
As convincing as Govers (2013, p. 72): “most places already have names to which audiences attach meaning […] depending on geographical catchment area”. The respective name is simultaneously and obviously crucial for distinguishing cities (and sufficient): “here the brand name differentiates (and anyone who confuses Bielefeld and Düsseldorf, for example, will not be able to distinguish the two cities by a logo or a slogan)” (Zenker, 2018, p. 70).
- 95.
Some newer examples can be found at: https://www.designtagebuch.de/tag/stadtlogo/and https://www.welt.de/reise/gallery134307515/Die-neue-Zeichensprache-deutscher-Staedte.html. Accessed on 31.1.2022.
- 96.
Govers (2013) argues very clearly and comprehensibly against the seemingly indestructible “logo fetish” among city politicians and city brand makers.
- 97.
They share this fate with the slogans of any other brand form, including and especially those in the commercial sector.
- 98.
Which does not mean that cities do not also possess verbal distinguishing assets beyond the name (which can range from the “Big Apple” to “See Venice and die” to “in Ulm, around Ulm, and all around Ulm”). However, these are consistently just not inventions of professional city marketing. The authorship then lies rather with journalists like John J. Fitz Gerald, with artists like Thomas Mann and Benjamin Britten—or completely unknown people (https://www.deutscheoperberlin.de/de_DE/venedig-sehen-und-sterben; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Apple; https://www.welt.de/print-wams/article113749/In-Ulm-und-um-Ulm-und-um-Ulm-herum.html. Accessed on 31.1.2022).
- 99.
See: https://www.shutterstock.com/de/blog/stadtlogos-als-marketinginstrument. Accessed on 31.1.2022.
- 100.
Many other possible topics such as typography, colors, image worlds do not change the picture and judgment presented here. We will come back to the topic of product and packaging design, which is also mentioned in the literature, later.
- 101.
In Sect. 2.6 the broader research context in which this study is situated was already extensively presented.
- 102.
At this point, city marketing in the current sense probably begins. Cities have been marketing themselves more intensively since the beginning of the twentieth century, with even earlier approaches going back to the early modern period. See Ward, 1998, Guckes, 2005, p. 84 and the literature listed there. See also Sect. 3.5.
- 103.
The data collection took place in the summer of 2011. For each city, 20–30 of the mentioned “products of city marketing” are included in the analysis.
- 104.
- 105.
Which football enthusiast does not think of the local Bundesliga club here?
- 106.
These are in descending order of importance: the Economic Development Dortmund, the City Administration with its communication service provider Dortmund Agency, the City Utilities Dortmund, the regional organizations Ruhr Tourism GmbH, Ruhr 2010 GmbH and Economic Development metropoleruhr GmbH, as well as the city’s tourism marketer DORTMUNDtourismus e. V.
- 107.
And it can be assumed with certainty that the Anglo-Saxon representatives of the guild of city marketers also see it this way.
- 108.
This thesis is variously represented: “Rodenbach’s novel [Bruges-la-Morte, 1892] thus tied in with travel descriptions of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, which had assigned specific emotional moods to certain places, monuments and situations, which were to be experienced on travels” (Noell, 2008, p. 80, emphasis by us).
- 109.
The literature on ‘city images’ (beyond the images sent by city marketing) primarily deals with the analysis of the production of these images (exemplary Guckes and Schürmann, 2005, Guckes, 2005; Noell, 2008). However, the question of interest here is the consumed (received) images, the respective successful, widely accepted images that exist for individual cities.
- 110.
Lonely Planet Pocket, Berlitz Pocket, Inside Guides (Great Breaks and Pocket Guide), Glasgow Travel Guide. Accessed on 5.2.2022.
- 111.
Travel Guide, Frankfurt Travel Guide, Frankfurt Travel Notebook Journal, Quick Trips Series. Accessed on 6.2.2021.
- 112.
So the affectionate designation of a linguistically gifted resident of the city, who insists against the prevailing city image: “Frankfurt is different“ (Demski, 2016, p. 153).
- 113.
The one for Birmingham, UK; there are several for Birmingham, Alabama: Local Love City Guide. Accessed on 6.2.2021.
- 114.
Only Travel Notebooks are offered.
- 115.
In English, extensive information is provided about Borussia Dortmund (in “The Ultimate Trivia Book”). https://www.amazon.com/Ultimate-Borussia-Dortmund-Trivia-Book/dp/195356349X/ref=sr_1_13?crid=14F0EFE0QMU3W&keywords=Dortmund+Travel+Guide&qid=1644156385&s=books&sprefix=dortmund+travel+guide%2Cstripbooks%2C171&sr=1-13. Accessed on 6.2.2021.
- 116.
In order to get as close as possible to the assessments of the ‘world public’, the English-language version was consulted.
- 117.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow. Accessed on 4.2.2022.
- 118.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt. Accessed on 4.2.2022.
- 119.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham. Accessed on 4.2.2022.
- 120.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dortmund. Accessed on 4.2.2022.
- 121.
Accessed on 6. and 7.2.2022.
- 122.
Two photos relate to the UN Climate Conference in November 2021, five photos cannot be assigned.
- 123.
Five photos cannot be assigned.
- 124.
Three photos cannot be assigned (including a map: Where is Birmingham?).
- 125.
Otherwise depicted: hotel, map, postcard, football stadium (a total of 5).
- 126.
https://www.gettyimages.ch/about-us. Accessed on 15.2.2022.
- 127.
Where just over 36 million are available: https://www.gettyimages.ch/. Accessed on 15.2.2022.
- 128.
- 129.
Fixed (mailboxes, telephone booths, street signs, neon signs) and mobile (street and subway networks, taxis, gondole) ‘furniture’ can help identify cities. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_furniture. Accessed on 9.2.2022.
- 130.
- 131.
A particularly interesting representation is provided by Pericoli (2001): “all of Manhattan’s waterfront, all around the island, drawn by one artist, on a continuous scroll of paper” (Goldberger, 2001). Thus, the entire skyline of Manhattan is traced over a length of 890 inches. And you experience it not (as usual) from above, but at eye level, from the water: the skyline becomes a “facade, facing the river”. Somewhat like it is experienced when you circle Manhattan in 2 h and 30 min with the Circle Line, enjoy the East River Ferry Astoria Route from East 90th Street- to Wall Street-Station as an amazed user of New York’s public transport system for currently $4 (adult one-way), or stroll along the west side of Roosevelt Island from Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms State Park to the Roosevelt Island Lighthouse.
- 132.
On (diagrammatic, figurative and thematic) city plans and their significance in the context of city marketing, see Salewski, 2011. In Bern, the Aare loop is not only a feature of the city that has been easily recognizable from the air for centuries (very early: the so-called Müller atlas of 1797/98). This plan is also directly connected with an experience significant in and for the city (Bärn isch eso): the Aaareschlaufe-Schwumm, https://www.baernischeso.ch/lieblingstouren/baedertour/aareschlaufe.https://map.bern.ch/stadtplan/?grundplan=av_farbig&koor=2600647,1199755&zoom=2&hl=0&layer=&subtheme=CatHistorisch. Accessed on 15.2.2022.
- 133.
- 134.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guggenheim_Museum_Bilbao. Accessed on 7.2.2021. See also Kress et al., 2011, p. 9 and Roost, 2011.
- 135.
There, commendably (which is often not done in the corresponding debate), the actual economic effectiveness of this approach is questioned and it is pointed out that the empirical data situation for answering the question is extremely poor. Furthermore, the risks and the possibility of failure of this approach are also addressed (Heßler & Zimmermann, 2008b, pp. 33–35).
- 136.
Innovative, interdisciplinary working urban historians (urban visual history) accordingly see a great research potential in the “interaction and exchange between ‘city’ as a political and sociocultural unit, its significant buildings and their visualization or media diffusion” (Kress et al., 2011, p. 13–16). They point to possible theoretical, further contexts (the so-called ‘Actor-Network Theory’, according to which urban icons would be interpreted as members of ‘nature-technical-human collectives’). And they emphasize the “importance and suggestive power of visual communication”.
- 137.
Why not simply none? Because of course, ‘I Love New York’ comes to mind. This city logo appears on Wikipedia under the keyword tourism. Neither Google Images nor Getty Images show it when asked for ‘New York’ or ‘New York City’. It appears when asked for ‘New York City logo’. However, even then it is still very rare (3 times among the first 50 on Google Images, 1 time among 216 images in total). This could lead to the judgment that so far no city logo has become an urban icon. The digital access to Wikipedia, Google Images and Getty Images took place on 15.2.2022.
- 138.
Unfortunately, this realization is not widely spread either in the brand industry as a whole or in the specific development scene of city brands.
- 139.
Zenker introduces a similar typology in the context of city brands (2018, p. 72–73) and distinguishes primary (the built city—significant for the brand knowledge about the city), secondary (the classic advertising measures—low effect) and tertiary (external sources—strongest effect) communication.
- 140.
Zenker (2018, p. 73) formulates this very succinctly in the context of city brands: “The question for city brand managers is therefore: How do I make sure that my residents, visitors, and the media speak positively about my city?”
- 141.
Impressive dimensions are historically taken by numerous attempts to comprehensively depict a particular city (at a particular time). For example, early comprehensive studies of the World of London (in the second half of the nineteenth century) comprise 300 volumes of 650 pages each (The Great World of London by Henry Mayhew—if the work had ever been completed) or 17 volumes (created over 17 years: Life and Labour of the People in London by Charles Booth); see Lindner, 2004, pp. 61–95).
- 142.
Surprisingly, after the introductory paragraph on the uniqueness of the project and the resulting photo document, the author of this essay describes in the remaining ten pages the majority of the well-known historical socio-economic developments in the city to explain the current state of the photographed object. He thus implicitly argues very convincingly that the current effect of the photographs can only be adequately captured with knowledge of the history of the architectural artifacts. So it is not simply an architectural image of the city today that is being documented. Rather, a specific, namely architecture-heavy, image of the city is being cultivated.
- 143.
And here we are dealing with a third characteristic: the perceived city. These three perspectives are simultaneously independent of each other and inextricably linked.
- 144.
- 145.
Currently on this topic Settis 2015. On the prospects of the city: “Who claims that Venice will soon sink? It is gradually collapsing!” (Scarpa, 2002, p. 95). Also see the documentary I Love Venice from 2013. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5548240/. Accessed on 3.2.2023.
- 146.
For the history of the term and its gender usage see Elkin, 2016, pp. 3–23.
- 147.
- 148.
The New York Review of Books lists 898 articles on Venice between 1963 and the end of 2021; for the London Review of Books, this is 582 articles between 1979 and the end of 2021.
- 149.
Remarkable because she commented: “I hadn’t been to Venice when I wrote about it, which is perfect because Venice doesn’t really exist.” Quoted from Jordison, 2015.
- 150.
Almost word for word, the historian also says: “No one forgets a first glimpse of Venice. Whether arriving by plane, boat, train, or car, there is that startling moment when one looks across the waves and finds what should not be there—stone towers, rich churches, and packed buildings rising up out of the sea” (Madden, 2012, p. 9). In contrast, for example, New York: “New York was always just a dream of mine, and like any dream that suddenly becomes reality overnight, New York also began for me with a deep disappointment” (Krüger, 1967, p. 273). Or again about New York: “The road was a highway. And it led through a desolation that overshadowed everything I had seen so far in urban bleakness. No patch of green, no tree, an endless mass of uniform cubic residential blocks, only broken up by gas stations and supermarkets. My impression was that of a prison landscape” (Schivelbusch, 2021, p. 76).
- 151.
Hanns-Josef Ortheil (2016, pp. 15–16) refers in his report from Venice to this joy of arrival of Hemingway’s (2004) in his novel Across the River and into the Trees (first published 1950) He incorporates it into his own novel about the creation of Hemingway’s novel (Ortheil, 2019). And he again refers to the work on this work in the subsequent novel, Ombra, in which he thematizes his severe heart disease following the work in Venice (Ortheil, 2021b). A particularly illuminating example of how the (geographical) conditions of a city become distinctive features of the corresponding city brand thanks to literary processing.
- 152.
Walks and climbing stairs are strenuous and seem to be healthy: “In Venice, there are few heart diseases”—however: “There are many bone complaints, rheumatism, because of the humidity” (Scarpa, 2002, p. 21).
- 153.
Others see “broken knee, fist, split shrimp”—as reported by Nooteboom (2019, pp. 93–94).
- 154.
On this “idiosyncretic system of house numbers” see also Spurr, 2016, p. 263.
- 155.
- 156.
At least that part of the trash that is properly disposed of and does not end up in the canali or rii. Donna Leon harbors a lasting hatred for the responsible “sporcaccione”. She processes her obviously deep-seated aversion to the pigs in essays (Leon, 2013, p. 911) and fiction (Leon, 2020, p. 9–13).
- 157.
In a further reduction step, it would be the la fórcola (see https://www.forcole.com/eng-index.html; accessed on 18.12.2021). Cf. Pastor, 2012 and Günther, 2015.
- 158.
Scarpa describes further elements of the soundscape of Venice (2002, p. 59–62).
- 159.
The central importance of ‘food and drink’ in defining cities throughout history is described by Wilson (2021, p. 127–132): “The life and bustle of cities have been generated as part of filling one’s belly and tantalising one’s taste buds”.
- 160.
Wim Wenders notes in (unpublished) interviews that he visits Tokyo again and again to experience the future.
- 161.
This certainly describes a characteristic of those cities that have become successful city brands through the work of city image producers (travel guides, travel publishers, tourism industry, reporters, news channels): “The stranger who comes to the city [Moscow] is struck by how well he already knows the city, even though he has never been there before” (Schlögel, 2011, p. 20).
- 162.
The cities of Switzerland, according to the president of the Swiss Cities Association (https://staedteverband.ch/de, accessed on 18.12.2022) are doomed to complete failure at this point and hopelessly inferior: “Swiss cities lack a myth compared to the country. […] And you can’t just create an urban myth afterwards”—this is probably too much of the proverbial Helvetic modesty or, on the contrary, due to the self-overestimating height of the bar set: “There is no Swiss Rome” (https://magazin.nzz.ch/nzz-am-sonntag/schweiz/schweizer-staedte-tempo-30-soll-die-norm-sein-ueberall-ld.1717611. Accessed on 18.12.2022).
- 163.
For illustration: https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Venedig. Accessed on 19.12.2021.
- 164.
Other possibilities for positioning the Venice brand have already been hinted at: The attractive ambivalence of the city (“a half joyous, half melancholy city”, Morris, 1993, p. x), the voyeuristic pleasure in downfall, the unique stage for cultural spectacles and cultural elites, the imposing open-air museum.
- 165.
This idea (for a possible brand core of Venice) can be experienced in the The Borges Labyrinth on the island of San Giorgio Maggiore (https://universes.art/en/art-destinations/venice/tours/san-giorgio-maggiore/borges-labyrinth#c64925), it can be heard on The Borges Labyrinth. A soundtrack experience (https://www.soundtrackexperience.com/). Accessed on 22.12. 2021. See also Nooteboom, 2019, pp. 159–162.
- 166.
An impressive artistic example of this: “I see myself at the labyrinth’s gate, ready to get lost in the city and this story. Submissive” (Calle, 2015, first 1983).
- 167.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gertrude_Stein#%22There_is_no_there_there%22. Accessed on 5.11.2021.
- 168.
- 169.
If the following narrative is based on real events and no other sources are explicitly mentioned, then the corresponding presentations are in the possession of one of the authors (juergenghaeusler@gmail.com).
- 170.
In particular, the association chairman Eberhard Riedmüller and the city manager Anna-Maria Dietz.https://www.ulm-news.de/weblog/ulm-news/view/dt/3/article/7854/Neuer_Citymanager_f-r_Ulm_am_Start.html/. Accessed on 17.12.2022.
- 171.
Mayor of the city of Ulm 1992–2016. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivo_G%C3%B6nner. Accessed on 17.2.2023. Ivo Gönner can be considered a prototype of the local politician who “becomes a cultural figure that tells us something about the imaginary of the city” (Lindner, 2022, p. 223). See also Thierer, 2017 and Loeffler, 2016.
- 172.
https://www.augsburger-allgemeine.de/neu-ulm/Bis-nach-Peking-soll-es-Ulm-hallen-id8619826.html. Accessed on 18.12.2020.
- 173.
https://www.augsburger-allgemeine.de/neu-ulm/Die-Kraft-der-drei-Buchstaben-id6662231.html. Accessed on 18.12.2020.
- 174.
… and an exception for the world of brands. The impulse to confuse successful marketing primarily with the development of new logos seems too strong. This was also often the case in Ulm, even years after the story described here, for example with the directors of theaters or museums. https://www.swp.de/suedwesten/staedte/ulm/das-markenzeichen-_ulm_-25124318.html. Accessed on 20.12.2020.
- 175.
https://www.augsburger-allgemeine.de/neu-ulm/Bis-nach-Peking-soll-es-Ulm-hallen-id8619826.html. Accessed on 18.12.2020.
- 176.
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schw%C3%B6rmontag. Accessed on 25.12.2021.
- 177.
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulmer_Spatz.https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schw%C3%B6rmontag. Accessed on 19.12.2020.
- 178.
https://www.augsburger-allgemeine.de/neu-ulm/Bis-nach-Peking-soll-es-Ulm-hallen-id8619826.html. Accessed on 18.12.2020.
- 179.
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulmer_M%C3%BCnster. Accessed on 22.12.2020.
- 180.
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Weibel_(K%C3%BCnstler). Accessed on 18.12.2020.
- 181.
This success criterion remained a memory—even in 2018: https://www.swp.de/suedwesten/staedte/ulm/das-markenzeichen-_ulm_-25124318.html. Accessed on 19.12.2020.
- 182.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfredo_Jaar.https://alfredojaar.net/. Accessed on 19.12.2020.
- 183.
Just as this has repeatedly succeeded with the actions of Christo; most recently in Paris 2021. https://christojeanneclaude.net/artworks/arc-de-triomphe-wrapped/. Accessed on 22.12.2021.
- 184.
- 185.
https://www.swp.de/suedwesten/staedte/ulm/der-preis-des-weitblicks-21986125.html. Accessed on 19.12.2020.
- 186.
For example, city councilors expressed themselves in the decisive meeting before they finally approved the replacement project with an overwhelming majority: “too small” (for supposedly big marketing), “heart, what more do you want” (because “grounded”), “full of anticipation” (because the activities will encourage many people to participate and “let us experience the tower anew”), positively inclined—after the tears over the unrealized crane tower had dried (and will always be remembered: “Aim high to see far”), “with muted enthusiasm”, because the goal of carrying the brand ulm to the outside world and placing it worldwide will probably not be achieved.
- 187.
- 188.
https://www.swp.de/suedwesten/staedte/ulm/125-jahre-ulmer-muenster-21923525.html.https://www.augsburger-allgemeine.de/panorama/Ulmer-feiern-Jubilaeum-des-Muensters-mit-Licht-und-Schattenseiten-id34218332.html.https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulmer_Oratorium.https://www.swp.de/suedwesten/staedte/ulm/marketing-experte-juergen-haeusler_-_es-geht-darum_-wie-die-welt-ueber-ulm-redet_-18382197.html.https://www.swp.de/suedwesten/staedte/ulm/doris-graf-gestaltet-piktogramme-von-ulm-19024457.html. Accessed on 19.12.2020.
- 189.
https://www.swp.de/suedwesten/staedte/ulm/weitblick-mit-visionen-22275737.html. Accessed on 20.12.2020.
- 190.
Donna Leon was (in response to the question) not directly happy about Corona, but she “loved the pictures with the deserted city”—which she admired from her new home, Switzerland. She only wishes for Venice those tourists who “travel to Venice because they have read my books or any book about the city, [because] they have other reasons for the trip than most tourists, they are interested in architecture, culture, history”—“That sounds a bit elitist,” comments the journalist (in the Basler Zeitung of 21.12.2021, pp. 2 and 3).
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Häusler, E., Häusler, J. (2024). The Description: How City Brands are Created. In: How Cities Become Brands. Springer, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-43776-3_4
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