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The Forced Migrations of Scholars During the Uruguayan Dictatorship: Refuge and Academic Labor Market Overlap?

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Academics in a Century of Displacement

Part of the book series: Migrationsgesellschaften ((MIGRAGS))

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Abstract

This chapter seeks to contribute to the study of displaced or ‘restricted’ intellectuals and academics by providing a case-study of the dictatorship in Uruguay (1973–1984) during which academics, trade unionists, journalists, intellectuals and artists were particularly targeted. At the time, the increase in qualified migration was the largest of the twentieth century. This chapter reviews the impact of the dictatorship with a broad analysis of the labor market and scientific exchanges after a return to Democracy in 1985. It shows that the exiles’ trajectories, and chances of successful reintegration upon return, differed based on their social and economic capital before exile, as well as their family situation and gender. The chapter also looks at academic reconversion, which is shown to depend on a sequence of some twenty years and a migratory trajectory spanning several countries concomitantly. Finally, the author argues that to understand the impact of a dictatorship on professional trajectories and subsequent policies of national reconciliation, the history of scholarly exile must also take into account resistance movements and the heterogeneous temporalities of political persecution. The example of Uruguayan exile offers a particularly illuminating diachronic historical perspective for understanding contemporary migrations under an authoritarian regime and offers valuable insights for current-day governments seeking to establish more supportive hosting policies.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Translated by Andrew Brown, revised by Dietlind Lerner.

  2. 2.

    The case of Uruguay is rarely cited—and often included under the rubric of ‘Latin American’ refugees in Europe. Although it is a ‘small’ country, during the military dictatorship it experienced the largest number of political prisoners in Latin America in proportion to its population (Roniger et al. 2018).

  3. 3.

    See Markarian (2018). Note that 984 academic dismissal files are available for consultation at El Archivo General de la Universidad de la República (AGU), these are not exhaustive (Markarian 2010). The acts of repatriation commissions sometimes make it possible to find the countries of migration: on three occasions, I have read in the margin of a report the word ‘France?’ as last known place of domicile (AGU, Blanca Paris de Oddone1, área de identificación 1.1). Thanks to Vania Markarian and Isabel Wschebor for help with my research in the archives.

  4. 4.

    The secret services of Chile, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay jointly carried out a campaign of repression and assassination of dissidents in Latin America, extending to Europe and the United States.

  5. 5.

    I stayed in Uruguay with the support of the CNRS International Mobility Program (SMI). I thank Ricardo Ehrlich, Fernando Lema, Nilia Viscardi, and the Musé family for their welcome in Montevideo and their constant help with my work; and Guillermo Dighiero in Paris. Between 2019 and 2020, I carried out 117 interviews in France and Uruguay: 81 direct testimonies, 23 with family or colleagues of the deceased and 13 with other witnesses. I saw interviewees several times. They often sent me details or archives afterwards. I attended academic events in Montevideo and meetings of Uruguayans in Paris. During the COVID 19 period, 19 interviews were conducted by Skype or phone. I filled 7 field notebooks with handwritten notes (cited in this text as FB), i.e. 664 pages.

  6. 6.

    A new historiography is shedding light on the comparative role of trade union movements in Latin America. Dicósimo (2019) sees trade unionism as the driving force behind social movements that have challenged and disrupted the order imposed by Argentine and Uruguayan dictatorships.

  7. 7.

    Recent research carried out by Uruguayan university groups established an inventory of disappearances and victims of the dictatorship (Rico 2008, 2017; Demasi 2009; Garibian and Berkhoff 2017; Gessat-Anstett et al. 2017).

  8. 8.

    See Analía Gerbaudo’s chapter on Argentina in this volume.

  9. 9.

    At the start of the twenty-first century, this ‘brain drain’ was a political concern. During the presidential elections of 2005 the future President of the Republic, Tabaré Vazquez, proclaimed that the ‘election might bring emigres back to Uruguay’ (Margheritis 2015). The Uruguayan diaspora is estimated today at 550,000 people living in Latin-America, North America and Europe (primarily Spain, France, Sweden and Italy) and Israel.

  10. 10.

    In the 1970s, for example, the Committee for Exceptional Aid to Intellectual Refugees (CAEIR) awarded aid to people who had left high school with the ‘bac plus three’ diploma in France (Kaplan 1996).

  11. 11.

    A hydraulics specialist trained in France, England and the United States. Upon his return he obtained a position at the Faculty of Engineering in Montevideo. In 1968, he joined the Movimiento por la Defensa de las Libertades y la Soberanía, which attempted to unite the opposition in the face of the government’s authoritarian abuses. He went into exile first in Buenos Aires, then from 1975 in Caracas (Markarian 2010).

  12. 12.

    On the movements for the release of Charles Juan Serralta Delpech, cf. Committee of Familiares de Presos Politicos Uruguayos (CFPPU) (Lebre 2021).

  13. 13.

    See the site https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03128670/. Accessed 19 April 2023.

  14. 14.

    Biologist [G3], Montevideo, 29 April 2019, at her office.

  15. 15.

    Biologist [G2], Montevideo, 4 May 2019, café—FB, page 110.

  16. 16.

    Sociologist [G1] Interview in Montevideo, at his office in a non-university institution, 18 December 2019.

  17. 17.

    Hugo Achúgar, ‘Entre dos orillas, los puentes necesarios’ (1987) cited by Lastra Viaña (2016).

  18. 18.

    Examples are cited in Merklen and Montaño (2006), Merklen (2007), Roniger et al. (2018). There are also quantitative surveys of scientific migration from Uruguay (Lema 2013; Pellegrino et al. 2019). I thank Fernando Lema for his archival donation.

  19. 19.

    Immigration of French from the South-West (1825–1880), foundation of a French Teaching Society in Montevideo (1882); French was the main foreign language taught in schools until 1986 (replaced by decree by English).

  20. 20.

    They include: Ricardo Ehrlich, biochemist—Mayor of Montevideo (2005–2010), then Minister of Culture (2010–2015)—who participated in the creation of the ‘Structure and dynamics of the genome’ laboratory at the Jacques Monod Institute; Guillermo Dighiero, Director of Research at the CNRS, founder of the Institut Pasteur in Montevideo (inaugurated in 2006) and Ambassador of Uruguay to France (2015–2020); and Fernando Lema, also from the Institut Pasteur, who chaired the Mercosur Foundation supported by the International Organization for Migration (IOM).

  21. 21.

    Interview Montevideo, 19 December, 2019. Yarzábal completed the interview with a written life account.

  22. 22.

    Reference year 2019: (1) PEDECIBA: mathematics, biological and medical sciences, physics, natural sciences, chemistry; (2) SNI: history, archeology, sociology, philosophy, literature and languages, political science. Data such as year, place of thesis defense, name of the director and the foreign languages mentioned have been coded. In addition, any citation in the CV of items having a link with France was processed (postdoctoral stays, obtaining a job, teaching, thesis supervision and masters, funded projects such as ECOS, etc.). Not all results can be presented in this article.

  23. 23.

    Except for History and Archeology, but the sample is smaller than for the other disciplines: N = 37 versus N = 261 for Biology.

  24. 24.

    The first thesis defended in my sample in Uruguay dates from 2010.

  25. 25.

    De Sierra (2005) specifies that the Department of Sociology has existed in the Faculty of Law since 1915. There was a revival in 1952 with the creation of courses in the other faculties (architecture, veterinary medicine and agronomy, etc.), but for professional purposes. The first explicit budget for the development of Sociology resulted in the creation of the Instituto de Ciencias Sociales (ICS) in 1956–8.

  26. 26.

    Francisco Pucci, Sociologist [G3], Skype interview 28 April 2020, FB page 316.

  27. 27.

    Interview with Geronimo De Sierra, documentary film by Pascale Laborier, Paris, 31 May 2019.

  28. 28.

    Hill was director of the Institute of Physics, established in 1941, until his retirement in 1970.

  29. 29.

    At that time, France offered training and employment opportunities for Laguardia’s students: Luis Castagnetto defended his doctorate at the University of Toulouse in 1939, then stayed there in 1948.

  30. 30.

    https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Annual-Report-1946-1.pdf. Accessed 19 April 2023.

  31. 31.

    Even though the result of their expertise led to the establishment of a centre in Argentina with the help of UNESCO, it was abandoned by international organizations when the dictatorship was established in 1966.

  32. 32.

    See in this work, the chapter by Ioana Popa which presents the international mobilization of mathematicians, and in particular the ‘Massera committees’. Massera was appointed an honorary doctor of the University of Nice (Markarian and Mordecki 2010).

  33. 33.

    AGU, Caja 208, Juridica 71-2. The teachers referred to in the same decree 921/973, in addition to Massera and Laguardia, included Luis Abete, Enrique Mario Cabaña Pérez, Jorge Lewowicz, Mario Wschebor, Juan Arturo Grompone, Martin Ponce de Leon, Roberto Markarian, Rodrigo Arocena, Atilio Anibal Morquio, Omar De Leon, Juan Piquinela, etc.

  34. 34.

    Mathematician [G2], Montevideo, his home, 2 May 2019.

  35. 35.

    Adela Pellegrino, Historian demographer [G1] Interview, Montevideo, café, 13 April 2019.

  36. 36.

    Montevideo, her home, 17 December 2019.

  37. 37.

    In Venezuela, Mario Wschebor directed the thesis of José Léon (1982), who directed that of Lisandro Fermin at Université Paris-Sud XI—Orsay (2008).

  38. 38.

    Judith Sutz, Engineer [G2], Montevideo, her home, 18 December 2019.

  39. 39.

    “14,004 people were assisted in Argentina (22.0%), Brazil (4.5%), Cuba (3.7%), Mexico (7.5%), and Venezuela (5.9%); and in Europe: Spain (7.5%), France (6.8%) and Sweden (16.8%). (…) 2,167 had a university degree before emigrating, 1,822 had completed their undergraduate studies after leaving the country, and 36.5% of those who returned had completed their graduate studies while abroad. It should also be pointed out that of those repatriated by the CNR, 3,989 were university professionals at the time of returning to the country and at least 2,230 had a doctoral degree” (Barreiro and Velho 1997).

  40. 40.

    The authors of a preparatory note for the PEDECIBA entitled ‘catalyst of science’ (AGU, PEDECIBA, matematicas, Caja n° 1, Nov. 7, 1985) were five mathematicians who had returned from exile: Rodrigo Arocena, Enrique Cabaña, Jorge Lewowicz, Jorge Vidart and Mario Wschebor. One of them, Enrique Cabaña, was elected vice-director, with Roberto Caldeyro Barcia in charge of the project. He was appointed director of PEDECIBA in 1996. UNDP and UNESCO actively participated in this institutional reshaping in the following scientific fields: biology, physics, geosciences, computer science, mathematics and chemistry. See also: https://historiasuniversitarias.edu.uy. Accessed 19 April 2023.

  41. 41.

    Ricardo Ehrlich, Biologist [G2], Montevideo, Institut Pasteur, 26 April 2019.

  42. 42.

    In the Wschebor archives, four boxes concern Franco-Uruguayan cooperation (AGU, Wschebor, Caja N ° 22–25). AFUDEST is mentioned there as a partner. The mission funds provided by the CNRS in 1993 allowed for new cooperation with the invitation of French colleagues, but also made it possible to maintain links between the returnees and France and enabled those who had a position in France to contribute to the PEDECIBA. In 1993, only political science was mentioned for the social sciences, with the award of a scholarship.

  43. 43.

    In medicine and biology: [G1] Guillermo Dighiero, Raúl Platero, José Luis Pico, Eduardo Deicas; Claudio Scazzocchio, [G3] Ignacio Anegon; in mathematics: [G2] Gerardo Gonzalez, Claude Cibils, Armando Treibich, Gerardo Rubino, Ruben Rodriguez Herrera; in physics [G1] Ferrero Rubens Freire and [G2] José Baruchel.

  44. 44.

    ALAS received support from the French Ministry of Public Works and the Swedish association SAREC. They awarded scholarships for master’s students for on-site training in Latin America and scholarships for doctoral mobility in Europe. They obtained a seat at UNESCO in 1993. Other projects were set up within this framework, such as the ECOMED network in 1993 to study environmental modifications and their consequences on diseases, in Ecuador and Colombia (Red de cooperación en ecología y medicina entre Francia, Colombia y Ecuador). The Polo MERCOSUR foundation, founded in 2005 in Montevideo, received funding from the European Union for the Creation of Incubators of Diasporas of Knowledge for Latin America–CIDESAL project coordinated by IRD and CNRS which deals with the migration of qualified persons (2010–2014).

  45. 45.

    ECOS was created in 1992 by the French Ministries of Foreign Affairs and Higher Education and Research. It structures scientific and academic cooperation with Spanish-speaking America.

  46. 46.

    Humanities [G2] Montevideo, Faculta Humanidad, 25 April 2019.

  47. 47.

    Norah Giral Deicas, for example, has supervised three theses in France by colleagues currently working at UDELAR. In Letters and History, the following obtained posts in France: [G1] Gabriel Saad, Olver Gilberto de León; [G2] Norah Giral Deica, Juan Carlos Mondragon and Marita Ferraro Osorio. In history, Gustavo Beyhaut (1924–2011) [G1] Director of the École Pratique des Hautes Études (EPHE) has played an important role in regard to Latin American subjects. Along with Jacques Choncol at Paris 3 he co-directed the thesis of José López Mazz [G3], currently Professor of Archaeology and Anthropology in post at UdelaR since 1986 (Interview 9 December 2019, Montevideo, Humanidad faculty).

  48. 48.

    Cultural cooperation service, French Embassy, Montevideo, 13 December 2019—FB, p. 193.

  49. 49.

    From the Pubmed site (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov; accessed 19 April 2019), between 2013 and 2021, those with France rose from 15 to 92 per year, while those with Brazil rose from 78 to 414 and those with Denmark from 0 to 42.

  50. 50.

    Leader of the Tupamaros in the 1960s and 1970s, he was taken hostage and tortured under the military dictatorship. He was president from 2010 to 2015.

  51. 51.

    “El discurso de la restauración democrática negaba que la dictadura uruguaya hubiera implicado una fractura fundamental en el autosatisfecho imaginario nacional”; Achúgar, Hugo. 2003. Territorios y memorias versus lógica del mercado, https://www.comminit.com/content/territorios-y-memorias-versus-lógica-del-mercado. Accessed 19 April 2023.

  52. 52.

    This aspect is the subject of a separate publication.

  53. 53.

    Anatomist and pathologist [G3], Montevideo, Faculta Humanidad, 9 December 2019.

  54. 54.

    Neurologist [G3], Montevideo, his home, 7 December 2019.

  55. 55.

    Clinicians [G3], Montevideo, their home, 12 December 2019.

  56. 56.

    In 1967, the signing of the New York Protocol put an end to the limitation on the application of the Geneva Convention to victims of events that occurred before 1951 in Europe. This new asylum regime favoured those from South America and Southeast Asia and was stricter for other exiles.

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    Pascale Laborier

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    Pascale Laborier

  3. Modern History, Institute for Migration Research and Intercultural Studies (IMIS), Osnabrück University, Osnabrück, Germany

    Frank Wolff

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Laborier, P. (2024). The Forced Migrations of Scholars During the Uruguayan Dictatorship: Refuge and Academic Labor Market Overlap?. In: Dakhli, L., Laborier, P., Wolff, F. (eds) Academics in a Century of Displacement. Migrationsgesellschaften. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-43540-0_8

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