Abstract
The (Multi-Path Attack Graph Algorithm) chapter contributes an algorithm (P3Salfer) and an implementation for generating multi-path attack graphs, which are a superset of single-path attack graphs by allowing several paths toward a goal node for a more realistic risk result. Bayesian networks are also generated and inferred with an algorithm (P3Bayes) for comparison.
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Notes
- 1.
UnBBayes is an open-source framework for probabilistic models. UnBBayes has many academic contributors, registered in 2002, and is still active; see https://sourceforge.net/projects/unbbayes/.
- 2.
nmap is a famous network discovery and security auditing tool; see https://nmap.org/.
- 3.
The monotonicity property might not hold in domains and cases outside of an automotive on-board network, e.g., in the case of Advanced Persistent Threats (APTs), where game theory is necessary to model the attacker and defender behavior.
- 4.
libdbus is a software implementation of D-Bus (Desktop Bus), an inter-process communication mechanism made initially for desktops, e.g., KDE and GNOME. Now running in several car makes.
- 5.
The “attackability,” becoming successfully attacked, is not to be confused with “attack ability,” an attacker’s power.
- 6.
MapReduce [77] is a programming model with a split-apply-combine strategy for distributing and scaling algorithms by many independent execution units. MapReduce became famous for scaling web searches.
- 7.
The junction tree algorithm is applied on Bayesian networks for inferencing; see details in Section 2.5.3.2 (Inference Algorithms) on page 61.
- 8.
An astronomical progress in memory research and development is not to be expected as the universe appears to consist of only circa \(2^{300}\) atoms.
- 9.
The used JDK is version 8u131 for x86-64-bit and was released in April 2017.
- 10.
UnBBayes: https://sourceforge.net/projects/unbbayes/.
- 11.
- 12.
- 13.
SMILE: http://genie.sis.pitt.edu/.
- 14.
- 15.
The attack graphs were exported as a DOT file and fed to Graphviz for generating images of the attack graphs; see also Section 3.8.2.2 (Libraries) on page 116.
- 16.
Gephi: https://gephi.org/, retrieved on 2020-04-04.
- 17.
gexf4j: https://github.com/francesco-ficarola/gexf4j, retrieved on 2020-04-04.
- 18.
Graphviz: https://www.graphviz.org/, retrieved on 2020-04-04.
- 19.
GraphStream: https://graphstream-project.org/, retrieved on 2020-04-04.
- 20.
JUNG: http://jung.sourceforge.net/, retrieved on 2020-04-04.
- 21.
JGraphT: https://jgrapht.org/visualizations.html, retrieved on 2020-04-04.
- 22.
Prefuse: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefuse, retrieved on 2020-04-04.
- 23.
Prefuse source code: https://github.com/prefuse/Prefuse.
- 24.
The newest GEXF format version is 1.2draft from 2010–12, retrieved on 2020-05-02.
- 25.
VisualVM details can be found in Section 3.8.2.3 (Development Tools) on page 118.
- 26.
The approach has been designed for and tested on development data of an actual mass-produced vehicle. Hence, an NDA (Non-Disclosure Agreement) became obligatory and prohibits the disclosure of details, even the make and model.
- 27.
Creating and using a generalized synthetic automotive on-board network model was also done in a similar project: EndorA [93]. Researchers designed an on-board network that is typical for a contemporary vehicle.
- 28.
Chain parameters: \(s_{sv} = 0.999\); \(a_{b\mu } = n * C_E (a, e)\).
- 29.
Mesh parameters: \(s_{sv} = 0.2\); \(a_{b\mu } = 3 * C_E (a, e)\).
- 30.
Multibus parameters: \(s_{sv} = 0.9\); \(a_{b\mu } = 3 * C_E (a, e)\); 25 nodes a bus.
- 31.
This CPU has two physical cores, a Haswell microarchitecture on 22nm, and was released in 2013.
- 32.
Java memory units are traditionally defined with a binary multiplier (1 024) instead of a decimal one (1 000), i.e., Xmx3G allows 3.0 GiB \(\approx \) 3.2 GB.
- 33.
The Java Virtual Machine is the logic that executes the Java bytecode. The JVM can also compile the bytecode to machine code.
- 34.
PGF/TikZ: https://github.com/pgf-tikz/pgf
- 35.
Princeton researchers warn of floating-point operation errors and urge using libraries; see [269] and Section 3.8.2.2.
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Salfer, M. (2024). Multi-Path Attack Graph Algorithm. In: Automotive Security Analyzer for Exploitability Risks. Springer Vieweg, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-43506-6_5
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