Abstract
This chapter begins by introducing the concept of communication on which this study is based (Sect. 2.1). In order to distinguish between communicative processes and processes that influence communication but are not themselves communicative, a distinction is drawn between communication and observation, and the relevance of this distinction in everyday life is highlighted (Sect. 2.2). The discussion leads to a consideration of authenticity in modern societies (Sect. 2.3). The chapter concludes with a critical review of theories on intra- and intergroup communication and a foundation-theoretical outline of group communication paradigms (Sect. 2.4).
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Notes
- 1.
Ungeheuer (1987b, p. 296) locates the guidance model already in the Phaidros (Platon 1950). Loenhoff (2000, pp. 64, 57 ff.), Schmitz (1994, p. 15) and Ungeheuer (1987b, p. 296 f.) also identify Fritz Mauthner, William James, Philipp Wegener, Alan Gardiner, Heinrich Gomperz, Gabriel Tarde (Schmitz 1987, p. 290) and L. E. J. Brouwer (Schmitz 1990, p. 9) as advocates of a guidance model of communication.
- 2.
- 3.
In my earlier work (especially Kurilla 2013a, b), I used the term “interaction history“. However, since the focus here is on social processes in general, the term “process history“is used. This does not refer to the term commonly used in jurisprudence, although it certainly has similarities with process history in the sense intended here. Rather, process histories can be likened in some respects to Luhmann’s system time, in that they limit the range of possibilities for future operations, or reduce contingency by ‘looping in’ processes. The working definition of “process history,” however, draws on Heidegger: thus, process history is here considered to be the history of past processes that are oriented towards contingencies and become noticeable in the present as practical inertia. One could also speak of a history of process practice. Its narrative reconstruction is to be distinguished from the process history. We will return to this difference.
- 4.
In this study, “raw materials“and “raw products“are used synonymously. The focus on “raw product“is intended to express that raw materials are always socially prefabricated and are not available an sich.
- 5.
Following Loenhoff (2003, p. 180), “founded“ here stands for “in need of supplementation or dependent. Foundation relations are ‘relations of necessary linkage‛.“In more detail, Husserl writes: “If, by law of essence, an α as such can only exist in a comprehensive unity that links it with a μ, we say that an α as such requires founding by a μ, or also that an α as such is in need of supplementation by a μ. Accordingly, if α0, μ0 are certain individual cases, realized in a whole, of the pure genera α and μ, respectively, standing in the stated relation, we call α0 founded by μ0, and indeed exclusively founded by μ0, if the need of supplementation of a0 is satisfied by μ0 alone. Of course, we can apply this terminology to the species themselves. Equivocation is quite innocuous here. More indeterminately, we further say that the two contents, or the two pure species, stand in a relation of foundation, or also in the relation of necessary connection; whereby, of course, it remains open which of the two possible and mutually non-exclusive relations is meant. The indeterminate expressions: α0 is in need of supplementation, it is founded in a certain moment, are obviously synonymous with the expression: α0 is dependent.“ (Husserl 1913, p. 261, partially italicized and blocked in the original).
- 6.
I owe much more to H. Walter Schmitz than only this example.
- 7.
A further difference to Luhmann, as noted in the introduction and further elaborated below, arises from the fact that the study also pays attention to pre-reflexive or pre-differential processes.
- 8.
See also Loenhoff (2000, p. 59 f.) on this distinction.
- 9.
However, Bühler only considers methods from humanities to be necessary for the examination of the latter, whereas this necessity is already given for emotional guidance at the latest from the perspectives used here (on this, see Kurilla 2007, p. 101 ff.).
- 10.
Symbolic resources can be compared with Bourdieu’s varieties of capital, Parsons’ media of success or Luhmann’s symbolically generalised communication media – but not without emphasising that they do not arise from an objective social structure, but are constituted in the history of situated sociations. A sub-area of symbolic resources is covered by a media theory conceived elsewhere (Kurilla 2013b, p. 474 ff.) for the differentiated consideration of social performances of emotions, which is mainly discussed in sect. 4.4. Although this media theory will be further developed in the course of this study, it can certainly be made more precise. The concept of symbolic resources is therefore left relatively undefined at this point. However, this is a productive vagueness in two ways. On the one hand, the roughly delineated field of phenomena encourages empirically oriented specification or theoretical refinement. And on the other hand, the term “symbolic resources“serves as a boundary object in the sense of Star and Griesemer (1989). “Boundary objects are both adaptable to different viewpoints and robust enough to maintain identity across them.“(ibid. p. 387) The expression is thus connectable in different discourses and draws its strength precisely from this. Thus, talk of resources can be found in some varieties of conversation analysis, political science, sociology and social psychology, to name but a few examples. For the continuation of the investigation, however, it is important to underline that symbolic resources are produced from raw materials or raw products, i.e. they belong to the process components of social processes, not to their environments. In the further course of the study, the term will be more clearly contoured.
- 11.
Heidegger assumes a fully developed world of meaning, not a stage ontogenetically or phylogenetically prior to this world of meaning.
- 12.
In order to prevent misunderstandings, it should be noted that the concept of objectification employed here undoubtedly has some parallels to Freyer’s concept of objectification or “Objektivation.“But “objectification“in the sense meant here refers to the transformation of what is ready-to-hand into what is present-at-hand. This differs from Freyer’s three-stage objektivation, since we are not concerned with the level of detachment of mental state, context, and body, but with levels of reflection. Thus, with regard to the process of objektivation, Freyer (1923, p. 26) states, “[t]he signs for these meaning-contents are objective spirit in all three required respects. Firstly, their meaning is objective; they have for their meaning not a mental experience but an objective fact. Secondly, they carry this meaning in themselves as they stand; they are detached from their process of production; I understand their meaning without having to know anything about their producer and his state of soul, without having to know anything about the acts of production or to interpret them psychologically. Thirdly, they are not meaningful acts but material entities, they are physically independent of the living being who produced them; they last beyond the duration of the producing acts.“As will become clear in the presentation of the semiotic-medial environments and process components of identity fabrication, this distancing from Freyer by no means calls into question the fact that signs must be materialized to a certain extent. Thus, without its medial manifestation, for instance as writing or sound phenomena, language does neither exist mentally as a notion nor in communication.
- 13.
The distinction between rules and templates, originally related to the relations of emotion and communication, refers to two types of formal templates, which are distinguished in view of their mode of transmission. Rules are transmitted explicitly, in a sense qua propositions, whereas templates are transmitted practically. “By ‘template,’ however, it is not meant that these templates of form could be copied, as it were, from the macro level into interaction, like rigid speech acts, without being subject to the logic of interaction. Instead of the rigidity of templates, it is [their references to practice] that inspired the choice of words. If one uses stencils in drawing, dealing with them is different from dealing with rules of drawing that guide portraits or caricatures and to this end formulate, for example, that the eyes must be located in the center of the face, which generally escapes the untrained eye.“(Kurilla 2013b, p. 444)
- 14.
Loenhoff (2002) provides insights in differences in the cultural shaping of communication. For more in-depth information on the relationship between everyday communication theories and the extra-communicative hnadling of communication and communication tools, see Ungeheuer (2004c), Schmitz (1998b), Loenhoff and Schmitz (2012).
- 15.
The problem with such an attribution is that it overlooks the fact that “il y a un cogito préréflexif qui est la condition du cogito cartésien“ (Sartre 1943, p. 20).
- 16.
Luhmann’s conception of intimate communication is discussed later in this chapter.
- 17.
We will come to the practical observation later in this chapter.
- 18.
Hahn (2003, p. 43 ff.), for example, considers national identities as the answer to the question of compensation for the individual quantum that is not absorbed in social circles.
- 19.
Given the ever-increasing divorce rates in modern societies, it can be considered that love as a symbolically generalized medium of communication to meet a need for a world of proximity exacts too high a price. Elsewhere (Kurilla 2011), I have tentatively considered facebook and other social media platforms as functional equivalents of love in terms of alternative sources for a world of proximity associated with far fewer difficulties.
- 20.
For Luhmann (1985, p. 426 f.), socialization is always self-socialization, i.e. it is oriented towards system-inherent relevances and cannot be controlled directly from the outside, although socialization models that the individual acquires play an important role. From this perspective, radicalization also always appears as self-radicalization.
- 21.
Houston’s study actually belongs to the bona fide perspective, which, however, as will be explained below, despite its partly ethnographic orientation, subscribes to different theoretical traditions depending on the author.
- 22.
Reflexive theory building in Luhmann’s sense (1991, p. 193) is a Sisyphus project. To want to integrate theory into the object of theory (even if only into a certain part of the descriptions of the scientific system) resembles that logical aporia to which Münchhausen is subject when he wants to have pulled himself out of the swamp by his own hair (see Albert 1991, p. 15 ff.). Not quite so ambitiously, “reflexive theory building“should here merely mean that the premises of the theory are examined with regard to their social, especially their economic and political conditional factors. Loenhoff (2008) follows a similar path when he argues for a reflexive concept of intercultural competence.
- 23.
Phenomena of communication between more than two groups are omitted here, firstly because the present study assumes that the paradigmatic case of communication runs between two addresses, secondly because correspondingly more complex forms of intergroup communication can be derived from this pragmatic case, and thirdly because the derivation of these cases would generate an increase in complexity that would not be compensated by the increase in insights in connection with the epistemological interest pursued here. An empirical indication for the thesis of the paradigmatic case of communication between two addresses can be found in the everyday phenomenon of coalition building, which is often used not only to serve strategic interests, but also simply to reduce communication complexity. On the other hand, phenomena of intergroup communication of subgroups, i.e. internal differentiation, will not be examined further here, since they can be described and explained mutatis mutandis like phenomena of intergroup communication between two groups that are not united under a shared roof.
- 24.
Moreover, cultural differences are not taken into account. Thus even a supposedly natural category such as that of mother is subject to cultural sense-making. Among Australian Aborigines such as the Walbiri and the Tiwi, for example, procreation is either not at all or not exclusively associated with sexual intercourse, but, in quite different ways, with certain dreams, which are sometimes also regarded as a medium of reincarnation (Herrmann 1967, p. 166; Meggitt 1965, pp. 66 ff., 270; Hart and Philling 1979, p. 14). This also changes the understanding of the role of mothers. Hart and Philling (ibid. p. 13) accordingly also speak of “households” rather than “families.” As can be seen from the extremely contingent but nevertheless rigidly implemented marriage of men to women among the Tiwi, the role of the father is also not shaped in the way that ‘Western’ expectations would suggest. Rather, the role of father changes from person to person instantaneously depending on external circumstances, e.g. the death of the previous ‘father,’ without this causing a stir. Finally, the act of procreation is attributed to a spirit that penetrated the woman’s body (ibid. p. 14).
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Kurilla, R. (2023). Communication and Observation. In: Group Identity Fabrication Theory. Palgrave Macmillan, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-39967-2_2
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