Abstract
In order to analyse the contribution of expatriation to knowledge transfer in organisations, the empirical data collection and analysis is interested in the formation and maintenance of personal ties. Rooted in a relational research paradigm, the empirical analysis focuses on social practices, transactions, positions and associated spatial and relational social process. The applied mixed-method approach consists of qualitative interviews and network data, which are analysed in an iterative fashion.
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Notes
- 1.
In this context, the term ordinary does not refer to jargon or everyday language, but emphasises corporate rules of conversations.
- 2.
Fuhse (2016:167) calls the second phase Network Structuring due to the expectation that any initial unstable social constellation advances towards some sort of network structure. However, the author argues that any relationship – once established – among actors already possesses some sort of initial network structure, which can only further develop in the sense that networks either dissolve because relationships are too weak to last, or initial relationships differentiate into ties of varying intensity and stability which unfold dynamically over time. Figure 6.6 is based on the assumption that the initial ties are strong enough to evolve into a more or less stable network structure.
- 3.
“As nodes joined, they formed ties to existing nodes, particularly to already-popular existing nodes. (…) magnifying popularity gaps and creating networks with power-law distributions. That is, this process of tie formation creates networks where a small number of nodes have huge number of ties, while the vast majority of nodes have only a few.” (Marin & Wellman 2011:16)
- 4.
Cf. Newman 2010:487 ff. for a comprehensive discussion of both models.
- 5.
Cf. Falk & Fischbacher 2006:310.
- 6.
Choi & Wu determine nine archetypes of collaborative forms among one buyer and two supplier firms. Generally, “(…) a triad tends to gravitate toward a balanced states” (Choi & Wu 2009:15), since conflicts in business relationships are costly for all members in the network and thus to be avoided (Choi & Wu 2009:13).
- 7.
Further, they explain the formation and identification of cliques and clustering in networks. Though cliques can be identified in ego networks as well, they are only indirectly addressed due to the size(s) of collected networks.
- 8.
Whereas the research methodology is largely qualitative, this point shall emphasise differences between the weak-tie and structural-hole argument, ease mathematical modelling, elevate its integrability to quantitative SNA and further empirical work.
- 9.
Homan does not refer specifically to humans, but to the existence of any element of social behaviour.
- 10.
For a detailed discussion of formal analysis refer to Jackson 2008 and Newman 2010.
- 11.
For a discussion on theoretical sensitivity according to the different views of Glaser and Strauss & Corbin, see Truschkat et al. 2011:356 ff. For a qualitative study based on the principles of GTM, the theoretical sensitivity developed beforehand may seem at odds (Wiedemann 1995:443, Morse 2007:235 ff.), however the eligibility criteria are only identified in a very general manner.
- 12.
For a discussion on structure and openness in qualitative interviews, see Kruse 2015:208 ff., 224 f.
- 13.
Except for the specific thematic interests which were inductively identified in the case of the business perspective, the analysis of interviews with expatriates follows this basic procedure.
- 14.
However, in a different social configuration the one who receives knowledge in situation A might disseminate knowledge in situation B to different individuals. Therefore, the role of knowledge provider and knowledge taker is a processual, dynamic one.
- 15.
As this study is gathering data on ego networks, as explained in the following, sampling techniques for whole network studies are not discussed. For a discussion on sampling whole networks, see, e.g., Marsden 2011, Frank 2011.
- 16.
For example, Lincoln & Guba (1985) define four criteria: trustworthiness, credibility, transferability, and dependability. Döring & Bortz (2016a:65 ff.) define five principles: principle of reconstructivity, principle of reflection, principle of circularity, principle of communication, and principle of perspective.
- 17.
However, it is to be noted that various contractual arrangements which govern and regulate the process of delegation exist with varying degrees of retention of company affiliation. In legal terms, a typical delegation is given when an additional agreement is added to the employment contract, as SA-10-R1 explains. For pragmatic reasons, individuals were not chosen according to their contractual arrangements, although different contractual arrangement may, but not necessarily have to, be associated with integration of varying intensity in the sending institutions during the time of deployment (SA-10-R1).
- 18.
The duration of the stay abroad is often used as the most common indicator to differentiate between expatriation and other forms of business mobilities, such as business trips. In the case of Germany, even the German doctrine is not precise, since the decision depends on the perspective applied. According to tax law, social security law as well as labour law, different views and demarcations exist (SA-10-R1). Therefore, the project does not attach great importance to the duration of the oversea stays and adopts an actor-centred view of the individual companies and employees interviewed. This means, as long as the interviewed actors understand their placement abroad as expatriation, the oversea assignments constitute relevant cases. Thus, the duration of assignments varies greatly among the interviewed actors (cf. Section 6.4.2). However, it is expected that integration in the sending countries and thus knowledge transfer increases with the duration of the stay.
- 19.
McCarty & Wutich advise influencing the ego when the impact of the ego in brokering his/her network is of interest. However, the majority of “structural measures will be functionally the same as the case where the ego is excluded” (McCarty & Wutich 2005:88).
- 20.
Further parameters which reveal information about the cohesion of a network are, for instance, constraint, transitivity or the clustering coefficient. However, analysing the empirical data proved that the basic tendencies revealed by density and effective size are supported, leaving them out of detailed mathematical analysis. For a discussion of constraint, transitivity and the clustering coefficient refer to Borgatti et al. 2018: 179 ff., 320.
- 21.
Often, centrality and centralisation are confused with one another. Whereas centrality refers to specific points in any given network, centralisation describes the property of a network as such (Scott 2017:101 f.).
- 22.
Betweenness centralisation is based on how well the network is internally connected through shortest paths (Robins 2015:183). In contrast to degree centralisation, betweenness focuses on “the ‘chaining’ of points” (Scott 2017:102). Closeness centralisation indicates cohesion by the function of geodesic distances in a network (Scott 2017:103).
- 23.
There is no consensus among social scientists about the relationship of typology building and GTM as analytical approaches. Some take the view that GTM is considered an overall perspective of the researcher (e.g. Corbin 2010:75); others consider typology building and GTM to be incompatible due to their different strategies of reasoning (e.g. Bohnsack & Nentwig-Gesemann 2010:163 f.).
- 24.
Initially, the empirical data collection was limited to the year 2017, so it was requested for the reporting year 2016. However, three of the 15 interviews took place in 2018. Therefore, those participants reported on the previous year 2017.
- 25.
The questionnaire asked for the use of external service providers during the selection process of candidates (0%), in preparation for the assignment abroad (100%), during the stay abroad (six companies), in preparation for the repatriation (twelve companies), after return (six companies). Companies sought advice in 2.6 stages of the expatriation cycle.
- 26.
The study was completed online.
- 27.
With the exception of two cases, all assignments were already completed at the time of the interview.
- 28.
On average, expatriations within Europe last 1.82 years with a standard deviation of 1.704. This relatively high diffusion can be explained due to an outlier of an assignment lasting seven years. When grouping those individual durations into classes, as in Fig. 6.24, the distortion is reduced to 0.712.
- 29.
In the sample, expatriate missions to countries in more distant parts of the world last three years on average with a standard deviation of 1.71. The distortion of the standard deviation is reduced to 0.616 when analysing respective classifications. Nevertheless, for both types of destinations the standard deviation is rather high indicating no universal mobility patterns.
- 30.
This indicator is calculated by the graduation year of their highest academic achievement, their age at the time of the interview as well as accumulated periods of expatriate missions. This means, however, that some individuals demonstrate an even higher share of their working life abroad when they have completed further university studies at later stages of their careers. Those were excluded.
- 31.
Due to the lack of data concerning place of birth, the place of university education was used as a proxy to understand long-term mobility patterns.
- 32.
On-going expatriation assignments as well as individuals who completed their studies abroad were excluded from this part of the analysis.
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Hünnemeyer, V. (2020). Studying Social Networks and Knowledge Transfer over Geographical Distance in Organisations. In: Knowledge Transfers over Geographical Distance in Organisations. Perspektiven der Humangeographie. Springer Spektrum, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-31018-9_6
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