Abstract
Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a reversible clinical syndrome of which the manifestations range from a slight alteration in mental status to deep coma with a lack of response to painful stimuli. The degree to which symptoms of encephalopathy are seen within an individual patient appears to be directly related to the speed of development of the hepatic failure; thus a paracetamol overdose may proceed from mild disorientation to grade IV coma over the course of several hours.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Zieve L (1981) Synergism among toxic factors and other endogenous abnormalities in hepatic encephalopathy. In: Brunner G, Schmidt FW (eds) Artificial liver support. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 18–24
Zieve L, Doizaki WM, Lyftot C (1984) Brain methanethiol and ammonia concentrations in experimental hepatic coma induced by injections of various combinations of these substances. J Lab Clin Med 104:655–664
Livingstone AS, Potvin M, Goresky CA, et al (1977) Changes in the blood brain barrier in hepatic coma after hepatectomy in the rat. Gastroenterology 73:697–704
Zaki AEO, Ede R, Davis M, Williams R (1984) Experimental studies of blood brain barrier permeability. Hepatology 4:359–363
Zaki AEO, Wardle EN, Canalese J, Ede RJ, Williams R (1983) Potential toxins of acute liver failure and their effects on blood brain barrier permeability. Experientia 39:988–991
Lo WD, Enms SR, Goldstein GW, McNeely DL, Betz A (1987) The effects of galactosamine induced hepatic failure upon blood brain barrier permeability. Hepatology 7:3:452-456
Knudsen GM, Poulsen HE, Poulson OB (1988) Blood brain permeability in galactosamine induced hepatic encephalopathy: No evidence for increased GABA transport. J Hepatol 6:187–192
Horowitz ME, Schafer DF, Nolnar P, et al (1983) Increased blood brain transfer in the rabbit model of acute liver failure. Gastroenterology 84:1003–1011
Dahl DR (1968) Short chain fatty acid inhibition of rat brain Na/K adenosine triphosphatase. J Neurochem 15:815–820
Quarforth G, Ahmed K, Zieve L (1976) Action of methanethiol on membrane Na/K AT-Pase of rat brain. Bioch Pharmacol 25:1039–1044
Seda HWM, Gove CD, Hughs RD, Williams R (1984) Inhibition of partially purified rat brain Na/K ATPase by bile acids, phenolic acids and endotoxin. Clin Sci 66:415–420
Rehncrona S, Roxi I, Siesjö BK (1980) Excessive cellular acidosis: An important mechanism of neuronal damage in the brain. Acta Physiol Scand 110:435–437
Seda HWM, Hughes RD, Gove CD, Williams R (1984) Inhibiton of rat brain Na/K ATPase activity by serum from the patient with fulminant hepatic failure. Hepatology 4:74–79
Seda HWM, Hughes RD, Gove CD, Williams R (1984) Removal of inhibitors of brain Na/K ATPase by haemoperfusion in fulminant hepatic failure. Artific Organs 8:174–178
Ede R, Gove CD, Hughes RD, Marshall W, Williams R (1987) Reduced brain Na/K ATPase activity in rats with galactosamine induced hepatic failure; a relationship to encephalopathy and cerebral oedema. Clin Sci 72:365–371
Lockwood AH, McDonald JM, Reiman RE, et al (1979) The dynamics of ammonia metabolism in man: Effects of liver disease and hyperammonemia. J Clin Invest 63:449–460
Zieve L (1987) Pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy. Metabolic Brain Disease 2; 3:147–165
Pappas SC, Ferenci P, Schafer DF, et al (1984) Visual evoked responses in a rabbit model of hepatic encephalopathy. II Comparison of hyperammonemic encephalopathy: post ictal coma and coma induced by synergistic neurotoxins. Gastroenterol 86:546–551
Ferenci P, Pappas SC, Jones EA (1984) Neurotransmitter receptor changes in experimental hyperammonemia in the rabbit. In: Advances in hepatic encephalopathy and urea cycle diseases. Karger, Basel, pp 368–372
O’Keefe SJD, Abraham R, El-Zayadi A, Marshall W, Davis M, Williams R (1981) Increased plasma tyrosine concentrations in patients with cirrhosis and fulminant hepatic failure associated with increased plasma tyrosine flux and reduced hepatic oxidative capacity. Gastroenterology 1017–1024
James JH, Jeppson B, Ziparo V, Fischer JE (1979) Hyperammonemia, plasma amino acid imbalance and blood brain amino acid transport: A unified theory of portal systemic encephalopathy. Lancet 1:772–775
Zieve L, Zoizaki WM, Derr RF (1979) Reversal of ammonia coma in rats by L-Dopa: A peripheral effect. Gut 20:28–38
Fahey JC (1957) Toxicity and blood ammonia rise resulting from intra-venous amino acid administration in man. The protective effect of L-arginine. J Clin Invest 36:1647–1655
Rossi-Fanelli F, Freund H, Krause R, et al (1982) Induction of coma in normal dogs by infusion of amino acids, and its prevention by the addition of branched chain amino acids. Gastroenterology 83:664–671
Borg J, Waiter JM, Schleinger JL, et al (1982) Neurotransmitter modifications in human cerebrospinal fluid and serum during hepatic encephalopathy. J Neurol Sci 57:343–356
McLain CJ, Zieve L, Doizaki WM, Gilberstadt S, Onstad GR (1980) Blood methanethiol in alcoholic liver disease with and without encephalopathy. Gut 21:318–323
Derr RF, Zieve L (1982) Methanethiol and fatty acids depress urea synthesis by the isolated rat perfused liver. J Lab Clin Med 100:585–592
Zeneroli ML, Ventura E, Baraldi M, et al (1982) Visual evoked responses in encephalopathy induced by galactosamine, ammonia, dimethylsulphide and octanoic acid. Hepatology 2:532–538
Zieve L (1985) Encephalopathy due to short and medium chain fatty acids. In: McCandless CW (ed) Cerebral energy metabolism and metabolic encephalopathy. Plenum Press, New York, pp 163–177
Ferenci P, Covell D, Schafer DF, et al (1983) Metabolism of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA in a rabbit model of fulminant hepatic failure. Hepatology 3:507–512
Schafer DF, Pappas SC, Brody LE, et al (1984) Visual evoked responses in a rabbit model of hepatic encephalopathy I: Sequential changes and comparisons with drug induced comas. Gastroenterology 86:540–545
Basset ML, Mullen KD, Schlotz B, et al (1985) Increased brain GABA uptake in pre-coma encephalopathy in the rabbit model of fulminant hepatic failure. Hepatology 5:1032–1036
O’Fallen JV, Brosemer RW, Harding JW (1981) The Na/K ATPase: A plausible trigger for voltage independent release of cytoplasmic neurotransmitters. J Neurochem 36:369–378
Roy S, Pomier Layrageus G, Butterworth RF, Hoest PM (1988) Hepatic encephalopathy in cirrhotic and portocaval shunted dogs: Lack of changes in brain GABA uptake, brain GABA levels, brain glutamic acid decarboxylase activity and brain post synaptic GABA receptors. Hepatology 8:845–849
Schafer DF, Fowler JM, Munson, et al (1983) Gamma aminobutyric acid and benzodiazepam receptors in an animal model of fulminant hepatic failure. J Lab Clin Med 102:870–880
Ferenci P, Pappas SC, Munson PJ, et al (1984) Changes in the status of neurotransmitter receptors in the rabbit model of hepatic encephalopathy. Hepatology 4:186–191
Levy LJ, Losowsky MS (1987) Evidence for gamma aminobutyric acid as the inhibitor of gamma aminobutyric acid binding in the plasma of humans with liver disease and hepatic encephalopathy. Clin Sci 73:531–534
Mullen KD, Martin JV, Bassett ML, et al (1986) Hepatic encephalopathy: A syndrome modulated by an endogenous benzodiazepine ligand. Hepatology 6:1221–1224
Baraldi M, Zenerloi ML, Ventura E, et al (1984) Supersensitivity of benzodiazepine receptors in hepatic encephalopathy due to fulminant hepatic failure in the rat: reversal by a benzodiazepine antagonist. Clin Sci 67:167–175
Bassett ML, Mullen KD, Skolnick P, Jones EA (1987) Amelioration of hepatic encephalopathy by pharmacological antagonism of the GABA-benzodiazepine receptor complex in a rabbit model of fulminant hepatic failure. Gastroenterology 93:1069–1077
Gammal SH, Geller D, Skolnick P, et al (1987) Unequivocal amelioration of hepatic encephalopathy by benzodiazepine antagonists in a rabbit model of fulminant hepatic failure. J Hepatol 4:517–520
Scollo-Lavizzar G, Steinmann E (1985) Reversal of hepatic coma by benzodiazepine antagonist (Ro 15-1788). Lancet 1:1320–1324
Bansky G, Meier PJ, Reiderer E, Walser H, Zeigler WH, Schmidt M (1987) Effect of a benzodiazepine antagonist in hepatic encephalopathy. Hepatology 7:1103–1105
Grimm G, Ferenci P, Katzenschlager L, et al (1988) Improvements in hepatic encephalopathy treated with Flumazenil. Lancet 2:1392–1394
Olsen RW, Young J, King RG, Duber SA, Stauber GB, Ransom RW (1986) Barbiturate and benzodiazepine modulation of the GABA receptor and function. Life Sci 39:1969–1976
Bonetti EP, Pieri L, Cumm R, et al (1988) Benzodiazepine antagonist Ro 15-1788: neurological and hevaioural effects. Psychopharmacology 78:8–18
Basile AS, Gammal SH, Mullen KD, et al (1988) Differential responsiveness of cerebellar Purkinje neurons to GABA and benzodiazepine ligands in an animal model of hepatic encephalopathy. J Neuro Sci 8:2414–2421
Wildmann J, Mohler H, Vetter, et al (1987) Diazepam and N-desmethyldiazepam are found in rat brain and adrenal and may be of plant origin. J Neural Transm 70:383–398
Sangameswaran L, Fales HM, Freidrich P, et al (1986) Purification of a benzodiazepine from bovine brain and benzodiazepine-like immunoreactivity in human brain. Proc Natl Sci USA 83:9236–9340
Mullen KD, Szauter KM, Galloway PG, et al (1986) CSF of patients with hepatic encephalopathy contains significant benzodiazepine binding activity. Correlation with post mortem cortical benzodiazepine binding studies. Hepatology 7:1103–1106
Gimson AES, Braude S, Mellon PJ, et al (1982) Earlier charcoal haemoperfusion in fulminant hepatic failure. Lancet 2:681–683
Ede R, Gimson AES, Bihari D, Williams R (1986) Controlled hyperventilation in the prevention of cerebral oedema in fulminant hepatic failure. J Hepatol 2:43–51
Canalase J, Gimson AES, Davis C, et al (1982) Controlled trial of dexamethasone and mannitol for the cerebral oedema of fulminant hepatic failure. Gut 23:625–629
Bihari D, Gimson AES, Lindridge J, Williams R (1984) Lactic acidosis in fulminant hepatic failure. Crit Care Med 12:255–257
Hand MA, Silk DB, Williams R (1978) Prognostic value of oculovestibular reflex in fulminant hepatic failure. Br Med J 1:1029–1030
Hughes R, Williams R (1986) Clinical experience with charcoal and resin haemoperfusion. Semin Liver Dis 6:164–173
O’Grady J, Gimson AES, O’Brien CJ, et al (1988) Controlled trials of charcoal haemoperfusion and prognostic factors in fulminant hepatic failure. Gastroenterology 94:1186–1192
Davenport A, Will EJ, Losowsky MS, Swindels S (1987) Continuous arterio-venous haemofiltration in patient with hepatic encephalopathy and renal failure. Br Med J 295:1028
Hanid MA, McKenzie RL, Jenner RE, et al (1974) Intracranial pressure in pigs with surgically induced liver failure. Gastroenterology 76:123–131
Skinhoj E, Paulson OB (1969) Carbon dioxide and cerebral circulatory control. Arch Neurol 20:249–252
Ede R, Williams R (1986) Hepatic encephalopathy and cerebral oedema. Sem Liver Dis 6:2:107-118
Stanley NN, Salisbury BG, McHenry LC, Cherniac NS (1975) Effect of liver failure on the response of ventilation and cerebral circulation to carbon dioxide in man and in the goat. Clin Sci Mol Med 49:157–169
Ede R, Gimson AES, Bihari D, Williams R (1986) Controlled hyperventilation in the prevention of cerebral oedema in fulminant hepatic failure. J Hepatol 2:43–51
Clasen RA, Pandolfi S, Lang I, Casey D (1974) Experimental study of relationship of fever to cerebral edema. J Neurosurg 41:576–581
Michenfelder JD, Theye RA (1968) Hypothermia: Effect on canine brain and whole body metabolism. Anesthesiology 29:1107–1112
Ede R, Gimson AES, Canalase J, Williams R (1982) Cerebral oedema and monitoring of intracranial pressure in fulminant hepatic failure. Gastroenterol Jpn 17:163–176
Smith AC, Morque JJ (1976) Anaesthetics and cerebral edema. Anesthesiology 45:64–72
Desmopoulos HB, Fiamm ES, Seligman ML, et al (1977) Antioxidant effect of barbiturates in model membranes undergoing free radical damage. In: Ingvar DH, Lassen NA (eds) Cerebral blood flow VIII. Cerebral function metabolism and circulation. Copenhagen, Munksgaard, pp 152–153
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1989 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this paper
Cite this paper
Wendon, J., Williams, R. (1989). Encephalopathy Associated with Liver Disease. In: Bihari, D., Holaday, J.W. (eds) Brain Failure. Update in Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine, vol 9. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-83929-0_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-83929-0_9
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-51655-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-83929-0
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive