Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

High-Risk Breast Cancer: Definition of the Risk

  • Chapter
High-Risk Breast Cancer

  • 90 Accesses

Abstract

High-risk breast cancer is defined in this volume as a disease with a high probability of dissemination, implying aggressive behavior, presence of micrometastases at diagnosis, resistance to therapy and ultimate recurrence with poor overall survival. This is in contrast to low-risk disease, which is curable in most instances by conventional surgery. The first part of this chapter reviews the known prognostic factors predicting the magnitude of risk. The ultimate value of refined risk assessment may be demonstrated by improvement in planning of therapeutic strategies. Accordingly, different intensities of treatment for different risk subgroups will be suggested, avoiding overtreatment of low-risk cases and undertreatment of high-risk patients.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Abandowitz HM, Oow KT, Hardy D et al. (1987) Relationship between flow cytometric parameters, steroid receptors and menopausal status in breast cancer. Oncology 4: 24–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Arnold DJ, Lesnick G (1979) Survival following mastectomy for stage III breast cancer. Am J Surg 137: 362–366

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Arteaga CL, Osborne CK (1988) Blockade of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor inhibits transforming growth factor alpha (TGF alpha)-induced but not estrogen-induced growth of hormone-dependent human breast cancer. Proc Am, Assoc Cancer Res 29: 238

    Google Scholar 

  4. Atiba J, Coppin C, Ragaz J et al. (1988) Clinical significance of lymphatic, vascular or neural invasion in node negative breast cancer. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 7: 12

    Google Scholar 

  5. Atkin NB, Kay R (1979) Prognostic significance of model DNA value and other factors in malignant tumors, based on 1465 cases. Br J Cancer 40: 210–221

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Auer G, Ericksson E, Azavedo E et al. (1984) Prognostic significance of nuclear DNA content in mammary adenocarcinoma in human. Cancer Res 44: 394–396

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Bates SE, Valverius EM, Stampfer M et al. (1988) Transforming growth factor alpha (TGF alpha) production by proliferating normal breast epithelial cells. Proc Am Assoc Cancer Res 29: 52

    Google Scholar 

  8. Bedrossian CWM, Raber M, Barlogie B (1981) Flow cytometry and cytomorphology in primary resectable breast cancer. Anal Cytol 3: 112–116

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Bertuzzi A, Diadone MG, DiFronzo G et al. (1981) Relationship among estrogen receptors, proliferative activity and menopausal status in breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1: 253–262

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Bettelheim R, Penman HG, Thornton-Jones H et al. (1984) Prognostic significance of peritumoral vascular invasion in breast cancer. Br J Cancer 50: 771–777

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Bichel P, Paulsen HS, Andersen J. (1982) Estrogen receptor content and ploidy of human mammary carcinomas. Cancer 50: 1771–1774

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Bloom HJG, Richardson WW (1957) Histological grading and prognosis in breast cancer. A study of 1049 cases, of which 359 have been followed 15 years. Br J Cancer 11: 359

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Bishop JM (1986) Oncogenes. Sci Am 246 (3): 80–92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Bonadonna G, V`alagussa P, Rossi A et al. (1979) CMF adjuvant chemotherapy in operable breast cancer. In: Jones SE, Salmon SE (eds) Adjuvant therapy of cancer. II. Grune and Stratton, New York, pp 227–237

    Google Scholar 

  15. Bonadonna G, Valagussa P, Rossi A. Multimodal therapy with CMF in resectable breast cancer with positive axillary nodes. The Milan Institute experience. In: Salmon SE, Jones SE (eds) Adjuvant therapy of cancer. III. Grune and Stratton, New York, pp 435–445

    Google Scholar 

  16. Bonadonna G, Valagussa P, Zambetti M et al. (1987) Milan adjuvant trials for stage I, II breast cancer. In: Salmon SE (ed) Adjuvant therapy of cancer V. Grune and Stratton, New York, pp 211–221

    Google Scholar 

  17. Boyd NF, Meakin JW, Hayward JL et al. (1981) Clinical estimation of the growth rate of breast cancer. Cancer 48: 1037–1042

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Carpenter J, Stoscheck CH, Preston YA et al. (1983) Antibodies to the epidermal growth factor receptor block. The biological effects of sarcoma growth factor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 80: 5627–5630

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Clark GM, McGuire WL (1988) Steroid receptors and other prognostic factors in primary breast cancer. Semin Oncol 15: 20–25

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Coombes RC, Berger U, Mansi J et al. (1986) Prognostic significance of micrometastases in bone marrow in patients with primary breast cancer. NCI Monogr 1: 51–53

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Cornelisse CJ, De Koning HR, Moolenaar AJ et al. (1984) Image and flow cytometry analysis of DNA content in breast cancer. Relation to estrogen receptor content and lymph node involvement. Anal Quant Cytol 6: 9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Cornelisse CJ, Velde CJH, Caspers RJC et al. (1987) DNA ploidy and survival in breast cancer patients. Cytometry 8: 225–234

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Coulson PB, Thornthwaite JT, Woolley TW et al. (1984) Prognostic indicators including DNA histogram type, receptor content, and staging related to human breast cancer patients’ survival. Cancer Res 44: 4187–4196

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Dawson PJ, Ferguson DJ, Karrison T (1982) The pathologic findings of breast cancer in patients surviving 25 years after radical mastectomy. Cancer 50: 2131–2138

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Dickson RB, Kasid A, Huff KK et al. (1987) Activation of growth factors’ secretion in tumorogenic state of breast cancer induced by 17 beta estradiol or V-HA ras oncogene. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84: 837–841

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Dowle CS, Owainati A, Riobirns A et al. (1987) Prognostic significance of the DNA content of human breast cancer. Br J Surg 74: 133–136

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Downward J, Yarden Y, Mayes E et al. (1984) Close similarity of epidermal growth factor receptor and V-ERB oncogene protein sequences. Nature 307: 521–527

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Dressier L, Clark G, Owens M et al. (1987) DNA flow cytometry predicts for relapse in node negative breast cancer patients. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 6: 57

    Google Scholar 

  29. Duesberg PH (1983) Retroviral transforming genes in normal cells. Nature 304:219–226

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Ege JN (1978) Internal mammary lymphoscintography: a rational adjunct to the staging and management of breast carcinoma. Clin Radiol 29: 453

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Ewers SP, Langstrom E, Baldetorp B et al. (1984) Flow cytometry DNA analysis in primary breast carcinomas and clinical pathological correlations. Cytometry 5: 408–419

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Fisher B, Slack NH, Bross IDJ et al. (1969) Cancer of the breast: size of neoplasm and prognosis. Cancer 24: 1071–1080

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Fisher B, Slack NH, Katrych D et al. (1975) 10 year follow-up results of patients with carcinoma of the breast in a cooperative clinical trial evaluating surgical adjuvant chemotherapy. Surg Gynecol Obstet 140: 528–534

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Fisher B, Redmond C, Fisher ER (1986) Systemic adjuvant therapy in treatment of primary operable breast cancer: National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project experience. NCI Monogr 1: 35–45

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Fisher ER (1986) Prognostic and therapeutic significance of pathologic features of breast cancer. NCI Monogr 1: 29–35

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Fisher ER, Gregorio RM, Fisher B (1975) The pathology of invasive breast cancer. Cancer 36: 1–85

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Fisher ER, Osborne CK, McGuire WL et al. (1981) Correlation of primary breast cancer histopathology and estrogen receptor content. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1: 37–41

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Fitzpatrick SL, Brightwell J, Wittliff JL (1984) Epidermal growth factor finding by breast tumor biopsies and relationship to estrogen receptor and progesterone receptor levels. Cancer Res 44: 3448–3453

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Folkman J, Klagsprun M (1987) Angiogenic factors. Science 235: 442–447

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Fossa SD, Thorud E, Shoaib MC et al. (1984) DNA flow cytometry in primary breast carcinoma. Acta Pathol Microbiol Immunol Scand [A] 92: 475–480

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Fracchia AA, Evans JF, Eisenberg BL (1980) Stage III carcinoma of the breast. A detailed analysis. Ann Surg 192: 705–710

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Fracchia AA, Rosen PP, Ashikari R (1980) Primary carcinoma of the breast without axillary lymph node métastasés. Surg Gynecol Obstet 151: 375

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Frankfurt OS, Greco WR, Slocum HK et al. (1984) Proliferative characteristics of primary and metastatic human solid tumors by DNA flow cytometry. Cytometry 5: 629–635

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Gentili C, Sanfilippo O, Silvestrini R (1981) Cell proliferation in relation to clinical features and relapse in breast cancers. Cancer 48: 974–979

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Godolphin W, Elwood JM, Spinelli JJ (1981) Estrogen receptor quantification and staging as complementary prognostic indicators in breast cancer: a study of 583 patients. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 28: 677–683

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Goldie JH, Coldman AJ (1979) A mathematical model for relating the drug sensitivity of tumors to the spontaneous mutation rate. Cancer Treat Rep 63: 1727–1733

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Haag D, Goerttler K, Tschahargane C (1984) The proliferative index (PI) of human breast cancer as obtained by flow cytometry. Pathol Res Pract 178: 315–322

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Haagensen CD (1977) Treatment of curable carcinoma of the breast. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2: 975–980

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Haagensen CD (1986) Diseases of the breast, 3rd edn. Saunders, Philadelphia, p 656

    Google Scholar 

  50. Harvey J, DeKlerk N, Berryman I et al. (1987) Nuclear DNA content and prognosis in human breast cancer. Static cytophotometric study. Breast Cancer Res Treat 9:101–109

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Hedley DW, Friedlander ML, Taylor IW (1985) Application of DNA flow cytometry to paraffin-embedded archival material for the study of aneuploidy and its clinical significance. Cytometry 6: 327–333

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Hedley DW, Rugg CA, Gelber RD (1987) Association of DNA index and S-phase fraction with prognosis of node positive early breast cancer. Cancer Res 47:4729–4735

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Horsfall DJ, Tilley WD, Orell SR et al. (1986) Relationship between ploidy and steroid hormone receptors in primary invasive breast cancer. Br J Cancer 53: 23–28

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Horwitz KB (1988) The central role of progesterone receptors and progestational agents in the management and treatment of breast cancer. Semin Oncol 15: 14–19

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Horwitz KB, Wei LL, Sedlack SM et al. (1985) Progestine action and progesterone receptor structure in human breast cancer: a review. Recent Prog Horm Res 41:249–316

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Jakesz R, Kolb R, Reiner G et al. (1985) Effects of adjuvant chemotherapy in stage I and II breast cancer is dependent on tumor differentiation and estrogen receptor status. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 4: 69

    Google Scholar 

  57. Jakobsen A, Skovgaard-Poulsen H, Lindegaard ME et al. (1984) Ploidy level of human breast carcinoma. Acta Radiol Oncol 23: 103–107

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Kallioniemi OP, Hietanen T, Mattila J et al. (1987) Aneuploid DNA content and a high S-phase fraction of tumor cells are related to poor prognosis in patients with primary breast cancer. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 23: 277–282

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Klintenberg C, Stal O, Nordenskjold B et al. (1986) Proliferative index, cytosol estrogen receptor and axillary node status as prognostic predictors in human mammary carcinoma. Breast Cancer Res Treat [Suppl] 7: 99–106

    Google Scholar 

  60. Koscielny S, Tubiana M, Le MG et al. (1984) Breast cancer: relationship between the size of the primary tumor and the probability of metastatic dissemination. Br J Cancer 49: 709–715

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Kuenen-Boumeester V, Hop WCJ, Blonk DI et al. (1984) Prognostic scoring using cytomorphometry and lymph node status of patients with breast carcinoma. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 20: 337

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Kute TE, Muss HP, Hopkins M et al. (1985) Relationship of flow cytometry results of clinical and steroid receptor status in human breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 6: 113–121

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Lippman ME, Dickson RB, Bates S (1986) Autocrine and paracrine growth regulation of human breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 7: 59–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Lippman ME, Huff KK, Jakesz R et al. (1986) Estrogens regulate production of specific growth factors in hormone dependent human breast cancer. Ann NY Acad Sci 464: 11–16

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Lundy J, Grimson R, Mishriki Y et al. (1986) Elevated ras oncogene expression correlates with lymph node metastases in breast cancer patients. J Clin Oncol 4: 1321–1325

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Luria SE, Delbruck Μ (1943) Mutations of bacteria from virus sensitivity to virus resistance. Genetics 491

    Google Scholar 

  67. Maehle BO, Thoresen S, Skjaerven R et al. (1982) Mean nuclear area and histological grade of axillary node tumor in breast cancer: relation to prognosis. Br J Cancer 46: 95–100

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Manji MF (1982) Internal mammary lymphoscintigraphy in breast carcinoma: possible significance in relation to current treatment. J Can Assoc Radiol 33: 10–14

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. McDivitt RW, Stone KR, Meyer JS (1984) A method for dissociation of viable human breast cancer cells that produces flow cytometric kinetic information similar to that obtained by thymidine labeling. Cancer Res 44: 2628–2633

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. McDivitt RW, Stone KR, Craig RB et al. (1986) A proposed classification of breast cancer based on kinetic information derived from a comparison of risk factors in 168 primary operable breast cancers. Cancer 57: 269–276

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. McGuire WL (1986) Prognostic factors in primary breast cancer. In: Bulbrook RD (ed), Cancer surveys - advances and prospects in clinical, epidemiological and laboratory oncology, vol 5. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 527–536

    Google Scholar 

  72. Meyer JS, Friedman E, McCrate M et al. (1983) Prediction of early course of breast carcinoma by thymidine labelling. Cancer 51: 1879–1886

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Meyer JS, Prey MU, Babcock DS et al. (1986) Breast carcinoma cell kinetics, morphology, stage and host characteristics. A thymidine labelling study. Lab Invest 54: 41–51

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Moran RE, Black MM, Alpert L et al. (1984) Correlation of cell cytokinetics, hormone receptors, histopathology, and nodal status in human breast cancer. Cancer 54: 1586–1590

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Nemoto T, Vanna J, Bedwani RN et al. (1980) Management and survival of female breast cancer: results of a national survey by the American College of Surgeons. Cancer 45: 2917–2924

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Nime F, Rosen PP, Thaler H et al. (1977) Prognostic significance of tumor emboli in intramammary lymphatics in patients with mammary carcinoma. Am J Surg Pathol 1: 25

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Nissen-Meyer R, Host H, Kjellgren K et al. (1986) Perioperative adjuvant chemotherapy of breast cancer: the Scandinavian experience. In: Ragaz J, Band PR, Goldie JH (eds) Preoperative (neoadjuvant) chemotherapy. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 95–103

    Google Scholar 

  78. Olszewski W, Darzynkiewicz Z, Rosen PP et al. (1981) Flow cytometry of breast carcinoma. I. Relation of DNA ploidy level to histology and estrogen receptor. Cancer 48: 980–984

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Olszewski W, Darzynkiewicz Z, Rosen PP et al. (1981) Flow cytometry of breast carcinoma. II. Relation of tumor cell cycle distribution to histology and estrogen receptor. Cancer 48: 985–988

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Olszewski W, Darzynkiewicz Z, Rosen PP et al. (1982) Flow cytometry of breast carcinoma. III. Possible altered kinetics in axillary lymph node metastases. Anal Quantit Cytol 4: 275–278

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Opfermann M, Brugal G, Vassilakos P. (1987) Significance of ploidy balance and proliferation index. Cytometry 8: 217–224

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Owainati AAR, Robins RA, Hinton C et al. (1987) Tumor aneuploidy, prognostic parameters and survival in primary breast cancer. Br J Cancer 55: 449–454

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Padmanabhan N, Howell A, Rubens RD (1986) Mechanism of action of adjuvant chemotherapy in early breast cancer. Lancet II: 411–414

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Parl FF, Dupont WD (1982) A retrospective cohort study of histologic risk factors in breast cancer patients. Cancer 50: 2410–2416

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Payne WS, Taylor WF, Khonsari S et al. (1970) Surgical treatment of breast cancer: trends and factors affecting survival. Arch Surg 101: 105–113

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Perez R, Betsholtz C, Westermark B et al. (1987) A frequent expression of growth factors for mesenchymal cells in human mammary carcinoma cell lines. Cancer Res 47: 3425–3429

    Google Scholar 

  87. Raber MN, Barlogie B, Latreille J et al. (1982) Ploidy, proliferative activity and estrogen receptor content in human breast cancer. Cytometry 3: 36–41

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Ragaz J, Jackson S, Wilson K et al. (1988) Randomized study of locoregional radiotherapy and ovarian ablation in premenopausal patients with breast cancer treated with adjuvant chemotherapy. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 7: 12

    Google Scholar 

  89. Rank F, Dombernowski P, Jespersen NCB et al. (1987) Histologic malignancy grading of invasive ductal breast cancer. A regression analysis of prognostic factors in low risk carcinomas from 9 multicentre trials. Cancer 60: 1299–1305

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Retsky MW, Swartzendruber DE, Wardell RH (1985) Predicting the disease free survival of breast cancer patients using DNA index and a stochastic numerical model of breast cancer growth. International Conference on analytical cytometry 11: Hilton Head, Abstract 343

    Google Scholar 

  91. Rosen PP (1983) Tumor emboli in intramammary lymphatics in breast carcinoma: pathologic criteria for diagnosis and clinical significance. Pathol Annu 18 (2): 215

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Rosen PP (1987) The pathology of breast carcinoma. In: Harris JR, Heilman S, Henderson IC, Kinne DW (eds) Breast diseases. Lippincott, Philadelphia, pp 147–210

    Google Scholar 

  93. Rosen PP, Saigo PE, Braun DW et al. (1981) Predictors of recurrence in stage I (T1 NO MO) breast carcinoma. Ann Surg 193: 15–25

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Roses DF, Bell DA, Flotte TJ et al. (1982) Pathologic predictors of recurrence in stage I (T1 NO MO) breast cancer. Am J Clin Pathol 78: 817

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Sanisbury JRC, Farndon JR, Needham GK (1987) Epidermal growth factor receptor status as predictor of early recurrence of death from breast cancer. Lancet 1:1398–1402

    Google Scholar 

  96. Sampat MB, Sirsat MV, Gangadharan P (1977) Prognostic significance of blood vessel invasion in carcinoma of the breast in women. J Surg Oncol 9: 623–632

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Schlessinger J (1986) Regulation of cell growth by the EGF receptor. In: Kahn P, Graf T (eds) Oncogenes and growth control. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, New York, pp 77–84

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  98. Schottenfeld D, Nash AG, Robbins GF et al. (1976) Ten-year results of the treatment of primary operable breast carcinoma. Cancer 38: 1001–1007

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Seeger RC, Brodeur GM, Sather H et al. (1985) Association of multiple copies of the N-MYC oncogene with rapid progression of neuroblastomas. N Engl J Med 313: 1111–1116

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Shapiro S (1986) Final results of the breast cancer screening randomized trial: the Health Insurance Plan (HIP) of Greater New York study. UICC workshop on screening for breast cancer, Helsinki

    Google Scholar 

  101. Sherwin SA, Twardzik DR, Bohn WH et al. (1983) High molecular weight transforming growth factor activity in the urine of patients with disseminated cancer. Cancer Res 43: 403–407

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Silvestrini RS, Diadone MG, Gasparini G (1985) Cell kinetics as a prognostic marker in node negative breast cancer. Cancer 56: 1982–1987

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Silvestrini RS, Diadone MG, DiFronzo G et al. (1986) Prognostic implication of labelling index versus estrogen receptors and tumor size in node negative breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 7: 161–169

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Slamon DJ, Clark DJ (1988) Amplification of C-ERB-2 and aggressive human breast tumors? Science 240: 1795–1798

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Slamon DJ, Clark GM, Wong SG et al. (1987) Human breast cancer: correlation of relapse and survival with amplification of the HER-2/NEU oncogene. Science 235: 177–182

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Spratt JS, Donegan WL (eds) (1971) Carcinoma of the breast. Saunders, Philadelphia, p 136

    Google Scholar 

  107. Stiles CD (1985) The biological role of oncogenes - insights from platelet-derived growth factor: Rhodes memorial award lecture. Cancer Res 45: 5215–5218

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Strauss MJ, Moran R, Muller RE et al. (1982) Estrogen receptor heterogeneity and the relationship between estrogen receptor and the thymidine labelling index in human breast cancer. Oncology 39: 197–200

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Tabar L, Fagerberg CJG, Gad A. (1985) Reduction in mortality from breast cancer after mass screening with mammography: randomized trial from the Breast Screening Group of the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare. Lancet 1 : 829–832.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Taylor IW, Musgrove EA, Friedlander ML et al. (1983) The influence of age on the DNA ploidy levels of breast tumors. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 19: 623–628

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Thorpe SM, Rose C, Rasmussen BB et al. (1987) Prognostic value of steroid hormone receptors: multivariate analysis of systemically untreated patients with node negative primary breast cancer. Cancer Res 47: 6126–6133

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Thorud E, Fossa SD, Vaage S et al. (1986) Flow cytometric DNA pattern in relation to clinical and histopathologic characteristics. Cancer 57: 808–811

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Todaro GJ, Frylling C, De Larco JE (1980) Transforming growth factors produced by certain human tumor cells: polypeptides that interact with human EgR receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 77: 5258–5262

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Tubiana M, Chauvel P, Ranaud A et al. (1975) Vitesse de croissants et histoire naturelle du cancer du sein. Bull Cancer 62: 341–358

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Tubiana M, Pejovic MH, Chavaudra N et al. (1984) The long-term prognostic significance of the thymidine labelling index in breast cancer. Int J Cancer 33: 441–445

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Ullrich A, Coussens L, Hayflick JS et al. (1984) Human epidermal growth factor receptor cDNA sequence and aberrant expression of the amplified gene in A431 epidermoid carcinoma cells. Nature 309: 418–425

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Valagussa P, Bonadonna G, Veronesi U (1978) Patterns of relapse and survival following radical mastectomy. Cancer 41: 1170–1178

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Valagussa P, DiFronzo G, Bignami P et al. (1981) Prognostic importance of estrogen receptors to select node negative patients for adjuvant chemotherapy. In: Salmon SE, Jones SE (eds) Adjuvant therapy of cancer. III. Grune and Stratton, Orlando, pp 329–335

    Google Scholar 

  119. Verbeek ALM, Hendriks JHCL, Holland R (1984) Reduction of breast cancer through mass screening with modern mammography: first results of the Nijmegen project, 1975– 1981. Lancet 1: 1222–1224

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Veronesi U, Scascinelli N, Greco M et al. (1985) Prognosis of breast cancer patients after mastectomy and dissection of internal mammary nodes. Ann Surg 202: 702–707

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Viola MV, Fromowitz S, Oravez S et al. (1985) Ras oncogene p 21 expression is increased in pre-malignant lesions and high grade bladder carcinomas. J Exp Med 161: 1213–1218

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Walker-Jones, Valverius EM, Stauffer MS et al. (1988) Transforming growth factor beta stimulates expression of milk fat globule protein in normal and oncogene-transformed human mammary epithelial cells. Proc Am Assoc Cancer Res 29: 249

    Google Scholar 

  123. Yarden Y, Harari I, Schlessinger J (1985) Purification of an active EgR receptor kinase with monoclonal anti-receptor antibodies. J Biol Chem 260: 315–319

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Zajdela A, De Lariva LS, Ghossein NA (1979) The relation of prognosis to the nuclear diameter of breast cancer cells obtained by cytological aspiration. Acta Cytol 23: 75

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Medical Oncology, Cancer Control Agency of British Columbia, 600 West 10th Avenue, V5Z 4E6, Vancouver, BC, Canada

    J. Ragaz

  2. Pack Medical, B7 East, 36th Street, 10016, New York, NY, USA

    I. M. Ariel

Authors
  1. J. Ragaz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. I. M. Ariel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Medical Oncology, Cancer Control Agency of British Columbia, 600 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, B.C., V5Z 4E6, Canada

    Joseph Ragaz MD, FRCP

  2. Foundation for Clinical Research Inc., 80 East End Avenue, New York, NY, 10028, USA

    Irving M. Ariel MD

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1989 Springer-Verlag Berlin · Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Ragaz, J., Ariel, I.M. (1989). High-Risk Breast Cancer: Definition of the Risk. In: Ragaz, J., Ariel, I.M. (eds) High-Risk Breast Cancer. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-73718-3_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-73718-3_1

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-642-73720-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-642-73718-3

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation