Abstract
Between 1950 and 2000 many conflicts occurred in the Mediterranean (Pfetsch ch. 3). While environmental reasons had not been a major cause during the 20th century, nevertheless several violent conflicts had a lasting negative impact on the environment: on flora and fauna and also for the well-being of human beings. While this book prefers a medium definition of the Mediterranean (Brauch ch. 2), this chapter includes the Persian Gulf because the Gulf War (1990–1991) resulted in major environmental damage and had political repercussions for the Mediterranean region.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Neilands / Orians / Pfeiffer / Vennema / Westing 1972; Westing 1976, 1980, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1988: 129’134, 1988a: 257’264, 1989: 129’134, 1997; Schuck 1986; Austin/Bruch 2000a; Brauch 2000:119’141, 2000a: 119’141.
Brauch 1990, 1990a; Poole 1991; Guthrie 1997; on the release of intelligence information for environmental research by the Clinton Administration see: Foster 2001: 373–396; Thomas 1997: 397–425.
Westing 1980; Brauch 1982; Brauch/Schrempf 1982; Brauch/Müller 1982; Martinetz 1995; Vöneky 2001: 10.
The German forces destroyed wide areas in the Norwegian Finnmark, launched massive clearance of forests in Poland, and destroyed 200,000 ha of agricultural lands in the Netherlands by salt-water inundation. The allied forces attacked several dams (Eder, Möhnesee) causing inundation, and the first use of nuclear weapons against Hiroshima and Nagasaki had effects on flora and fauna due to radioactive radiation. See: Westing 1980, 1985; The Committee for the Compilation of Materials on Damage Caused by the Atomic Bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki 1981; Sandoz/Swinarsky/Zimmerman 1987; Vöneky 2001: 11–12.
Westing 1985; for explosive remnants in Poland: Molski/Pajak 1985; in Libya: White Book 1981; Sgaier 1985.
Martinetz 1995: 233; Witteler 1993: 80; Vöneky 2001: 15.
Neilands/ Orians/ Pfeiffer/ Vennema/ Westing, 1972; Jaschinsky, 1975; Westing 1976, 1984; Buckingham 1982; Spieker 1992; Martinetz 1995; Brauch 2000: 128’130; Vöneky 2001: 12–15.
The first expert meeting took place in Stockholm from 26 to 28 July 2002 as the: “Environmental Conference on Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam” that dealt with ecosystems, public health and ethics/law/policy. For details see at: <http://www.nnn.se/vietnam/environ. htm>. A second meeting took place at Yale University on: “Ecological and Health Effects of the Vietnam War Symposium” on September 13–15, 2002. For details see at: <http://www.nursing.yale.edu/news/vwsymposium.html>.
National Academy of Sciences 1974; Donovan 1983; Eriksson et al. 1984; Stellman et al. 1988; Spieker 1992: 254; Savitz et al. 1993; Schecter et al. 1995; Hay 1982, 2000: 402–425; Do Vinh 2000
Karrar/ Batanouny/ Mian/ El-Din 1991, 1991a; Bloom/Miller/Warner/Winkler 1994; Austin/Bruch 2000: 2’3; Omar/Briskey/Misak/Asem 2000; Abdulraheem 2000; Vöneky 2001: 13–16; Hawley 1992; Lanier-Graham, 1993; Ramachandran 1991.
Austin/ Burch 2000: 4, 647–664; Vöneky 2001: 23–24; UNEP/UNCHS 1999; UNEP 2000, 2000a, 2001.
In_February 2002, the UNEP Governing Council at its Seventh Special Session adopted a unanimous decision “to assess the environmental situation in the Palestinian Territories”. The desk study was to be finalised in November 2002 and presented to the Governing Council of UNEP in February 2003. For details see: UNEP/GCSS.VII/4/Add.3, at: <http://www.unep.org/governingbodies/governingcouncil_seventh.asp>.
See for literature prior to 11 September 2001: Cole 1997; Falkenmark/Newman/Thayer 1998; Stern 1999; Taylor/Horgan 2000; Gurr/Cole 2000.
Fleck 1994, 1999; Fahl 1980, 1989; Sartorius II; Reisman/Antoniou 1994; Roberts/Guelff 1982, 1989, 2000; Westing 1984; Detter 1987, 2000.
Grunawalt/ King/ Mc Claim 1996; Plant 1992; Siegel 1973; Höchner 1977.
See Roberts/ Guelff 2000: 139–154; Greenwood 1999; 21–22. These rules that were never legally adopted and widely disregarded during World War II prohibited attacks on civilians and aerial bombardments “for the purpose of terrorising the civilian population”. However many of these principles were adopted in 1977 in the first Additional Protocol (AP I) to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and thus have become binding treaty law.
For the text see: Roberts/ Guelff 2000: 155–168; for a detailed political and legal analysis see: Bothe 1973; Kassapis 1986; Brauch 1982; Brauch/Müller 1985.
See Greenwood 1999: 22: “Although the Conventions were in force during World War II, some of the major Protagonists, including the USSR and Japan, were not parties to them. Nevertheless, at the end of the War, tribunals in a number of war crimes ruled that the main provisions of the Prisoners of War Convention had become part of customary international law and were thus binding on all states in 1939.”
See agreement by the allied governments “for the prosecution and Punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis”, in: Reisman/ Antoniou 1994: 318–322 that distinguished between crimes against peace (planning, preparation, initiation of a war of aggression), war crimes (violations of the laws or customs of war, murder, or ill-treatment of civilians in occupied areas, of prisoners of war, killing of hostages, plunder of public or private property, wanton destruction of cities, towns or villages, or devastation not justified by military necessity), and crimes against humanity (murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population). See selected verdicts in: Reisman/Antoniou 1994: 323–336.
See: Reisman/ Antoniou 1994: 337–351.
For an easy access to texts, see: UN Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights, International Human Rights Instruments, at:<http://www.unhchr.ch/html/intlinst.htm>.
See text at: <http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/q_genevi.htm>.
See text at: <http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/q_genev2.htm>.
See text at: <http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/9i.htm>.
See for texts: Roberts/ Guelff 2000: 195–370; Greenwood 1999: 23–24; Reisman/Antoniou 1994:153–219, see at: <http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/92.htm>.
See for texts: Roberts/ Guelff 2000: 419–512; Greenwood 1999: 25–26; Reisman/Antoniou 1994: 385–386; at: <http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/93.htm> and at: <http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/94.htm>.
See for texts: 249 UNTS 240–88; Roberts/ Guelff 2000: 371–406; Greenwood 1999: 27; Reisman/Antoniou 1994: 94. Art. 27. For a detailed analysis see: Partsch 1999: 377–404.
As of mid August 2002 the second protocol had not yet entered into force. For the countries that ratified the first protocol on 9 April 2002 see at: <http://www.unes-co.org/culture/laws/hague/html_eng/page9.shtml/culture/laws/hague/html_eng/page9.shtml>.
See Roberts/ Guelff 2000: 572–606; Doswald-Beck 1995: 5–44.
See Roberts/ Guelff 2000: 667–697; Lee 1997: 479–571; Schabas 2001. The establishment of such an international court was first suggested by Gustave Moynier, president of the ICRC, in 1872. In 1934 France had proposed such a court to the League of Nations, and in 1947, suggested such a court to the UN General Assembly. After 1981 such a court was considered by the International Law Commission but it took until 1995, when the General Assembly formed a Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court which prepared a text in six sessions until 1998. On 17 July 1998 the text was adopted by 120 states in favour, seven against (including the USA), and with 21 abstentions.
See_at: <http://untreaty.un.org/ENGLISH/bible/eng-lishinternetbible/partI/chapterXVIII/treatyio.asp/ENGLISH/bible/eng-lishinternetbible/partI/chapterXVIII/treatyio.asp>. The court will be operational in the first half of 2003.
See at: <http://untreaty.un.org/ENGLISH/bible/eng-lishinternetbible/partl/chapterXVIII/treaty10.asp/ENGLISH/bible/eng-lishinternetbible/partl/chapterXVIII/treaty10.asp>.
See at: <http://www.wfa.org/issues/wicc/UNSCexemption.html>.
See ACDA 1982: 9–18; Goldblat 1994: 277–279; Roberts/Guelff 2000: 155–168; see on: “Status of Multilateral Arms Regulation and Disarmament Agreements”, at: <http://disarmament.un.org/TreatyStatus.nsf>.
See ACDA 1982: 120–131; Goldblat 1994: 370–374.
See Goldblat 1994: 419–423; Roberts/Guelff 2000: 407–418.
See Goldblat 1994: 482–492; Roberts/Guelff 2000: 515–560
Brauch 1982, 1989: 109–115, 1993: 88–94, 1997: 94–101, 1999: 17–18, 2000: 119–141, 2002: 82–99; Brauch/Müller 1985.
Maresca/ Maslen 2000; Austin/Bruch 2000: 5–6, 21, 49, 65, 75–77, 82, 84, 151–153,179–181, 317, 330, 396–397. 638.
See also the references in: Austin/ Bruch 2000: 200–201, 204, 210, 211, 214, 254, 360, 565, 657.
See Art. 6 of the Amsterdam Treaty of the European Union; European Council: “Conclusions of the Presidency of the European Council in Cardiff”, March 1998; see attachments to the conclusions of the Presidencies at the European Council in Vienna (1998), Berlin (1999); Helsinki (10–11 December 1999), in: <http://ue.Eu.int/Newsroom/LoadDoc/Newsroom/LoadDoc>; Nice (2000); Gothenburg (2001).
See the text at: <http://ue.eu.int/pressData/en/ec/71025.pdf>.
European Council: Presidency Conclusions, Nice European Council, 7–9 December 2000, in: <http://ue.eu.int/en/Info/eurocouncil/index.htm>; European Council: Presidency Conclusions, Göteborg European Council, 15–16 June 2001, in: <http://ue.eu.int/en/Info/eurocouncil/index.htm./en/Info/eurocouncil/index.htm.> 46 All documents listed above can be accessed at: <http://www.europa.eu.int/council/off/conclu/index.htm/council/off/conclu/index.htm>.
Plant 1992; Bruch/Austin 2000: 647–664.
See “Nations Contributing to KFOR”, in: <http://www.kforonline.com/kfor/nations/default.htm>
Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, Information Note: Cooperation between Civil Protection Services, in: <http://www.euromed.net/information-notes/PROCIV-Ien.html/information-notes/PROCIV-Ien.html>; “Conclusions of the 1st Meeting of the Steering committee of the Pilot Project for the Creation of a Euro-Med System of Prevention, Mitigation and Management of Natural and Man-made Disasters”, in: <http://www.euromed.net/political-security/DISASTER-MGMT/Disaster_eng.htm>.
Auswärtiges Amt: “Koordinierungstreffen für humanitäres Minenräumen im Kosovo”, in: <http://www.auswaertiges-am.de/6_archiv/99/p/p99o63oa.htm>.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2003 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Brauch, H.G. (2003). War Impacts on the Environment in the Mediterranean and Evolution of International Law. In: Brauch, H.G., Liotta, P.H., Marquina, A., Rogers, P.F., Selim, M.ES. (eds) Security and Environment in the Mediterranean. Hexagon Series on Human and Environmental Security and Peace, vol 1. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-55854-2_31
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-55854-2_31
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-62479-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-55854-2
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive