Abstract
The changes in the politics, economy, and technology, and relations among key national and international actors impose a new reality on the legal system that is favorable to its internationalization. The new reality does not occur directly, given that the legal system has its own structure. This structure gives it coherence and must be maintained to justify its autonomous identity. Rather, it is an indirect relationship that transforms the law in accord with demands on it.
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Notes
- 1.
This classification comes from Mireille Delmas-Marty, discussed in the Network Pictures of the Internationalisation of Law from 2007–2009, with researchers from different countries. The analytical method for analysis—factors, actors, and processes—was developed by this research network, coordinated by Mireille Delmas-Marty. However, I consider it important to focus on a few precise methodological points, differentiated from the earlier discussions described.
- 2.
I take license to use the terms “Security Council” and “United Nations Security Council” interchangeably.
- 3.
Dupuy explains this concept well: the terms “international society, international community, and humanity are three ways of looking at the human family, each with a precise historical date. It would be erroneous to suggest that they are sequentially occurring substitutes; this would project to the reader a notion of new ‘law of three stages under which the law of humanity would succeed the law of community, which succeeds the law of society.’ In reality, these three concepts coexist in the midst of their different principles and of tension in current international political and legal systems. The notion of international society brings to reality the coexistence of sovereign states. The notion of community is more recent and means more than international collectivity, moving beyond the unitary notion of the state to suggest oneness of interests, law, and duties among the different peoples that make up the family of nations. The notion of humanity broadens the perspective further, encompassing not only the present, but future generations, with the notion of solidarity among peoples in the midst of state identities and rivalries that persist. This notion adds a trans-temporal dimension. Based on this, it is possible to imagine wide space for positive internationalization in which the interests of humanity would be entrusted to a representative body.” Dupuy (2008), pp. 817–818. I will not discuss here the difference between international society and community, or whether society is a construct arising out of community or rather a natural result, based on human nature, of living with others. On the concept of human community, see also Jouannet (2003), pp. 191–232.
- 4.
A different vision is noted in Koskenniemi (2005), p. 497.
- 5.
Exceptionalism, as used here, is the position that the values of one country in particular should be reflected in international law. See Bradford and Posner (2010), p. 6.
- 6.
Bradford and Posner (2010), p. 3. As Onuma Yasuaki puts it, this is a contradictory argument because the same states that invoke exceptionalism as a reason not to submit to international rules encourage other members of the international community to look to them as examples of good conduct to be followed.
- 7.
Bradford and Posner (2010), pp. 1 and 7.
- 8.
Bradford and Posner (2010).
- 9.
Bradford and Posner (2010), pp. 24–32.
- 10.
Lafer (2005), pp. 73–83, particularly pp. 73–75.
- 11.
Teubner (1997), p. 3. In this sense, globalization operates in subglobal spheres. No country in the world takes part in every great event, such as the First or Second World Wars; not all are part of the Islamic or Christian world or take part in the World Cup of soccer or cricket; nor do all speak English or Chinese. Cf. Twining (2010), p. 505.
- 12.
Teubner (2008), p. 1.
- 13.
On the importance of economics in building legal and institutional structures at the end of the Second World War, see, for example, Kelsen (1944), p. 16.
- 14.
Comeliau (2000), p. 45. Comeliau suggests a predominance of economic concerns, competition, and transformation of a market economy into a capitalist economy and then speaks of a degradation of reason into a quantifiable and partial rationality based on the accumulation of profits.
- 15.
Faria (2004), p. 60.
- 16.
Delmas-Marty (2003), p. 13.
- 17.
Faria (2004), p. 94.
- 18.
Faria (2004), p. 122.
- 19.
Faria (2004), p. 205.
- 20.
In the words of José Eduardo Faria, as “rules of circumstance” or “regulations by necessity” multiply, the state loses the true dimension of legal value of the rules it uses to regulate behavior. Faria (2004), p. 205.
- 21.
Habermas (2003), p. 104.
- 22.
In the words of the author, “All this institutional machinery forged around the nation-state and around legal thought based on principles of sovereignty, political autonomy, separation of powers, legal monism, individual rights, fundamental rights, judicial review, and res judicata, is increasingly put in check by the diversity, heterogeneity, and complexity of the process of transnationalization of markets for inputs, production, capital, finance, and consumption. In this sense, depending on the situation (size of the consumer market, weight of economic capacity, control of production technology, degree of modernity in terms of infrastructure, etc.), the state loses the autonomy and independence needed to implement its policies at the internal level (monetary, fiscal, foreign exchange, and welfare policy).” Duguit (1930), p. 23.
- 23.
Koskenniemi (2005).
- 24.
See especially Jouannet (2011).
- 25.
Twining (2010), p. 516.
- 26.
Habermas (2003), p. 104.
- 27.
Teubner (2008), p. 2.
- 28.
The concept of legitimacy is understood here as the ability to motivate obedience. The discussion of whether the norm’s legitimacy is found in its authority (positivist thought) or in the community (St. Thomas Aquinas) is quite traditional. See the interesting work of Barzotto (2007) pp. 219–260, especially p. 235.
- 29.
Richter cited by Habermas (2003), p. 115.
- 30.
Teubner (2008), p. 3.
- 31.
Habermas (2001), p. 58.
- 32.
Febbrajo and Teubner (1992), pp. 4, 7 and 8. Under this logic, the central element of legal discourse is a binary legal/illegal analysis. In the political discourse, it is government/opposition. As to economy: those who do/do not own land, etc.
- 33.
The expression “clash of civilizations” is borrowed from Huntington (1997).
- 34.
On this point, I highlight in particular the work of Ferri (2012).
- 35.
Faria (2004), pp. 62, 80.
- 36.
Habermas (1986), p. 87.
- 37.
Delmas-Marty (2007), pp. 18 and 19. In the words of the author, “si les crises paraissent d’abord conduire à l’impasse, en révélant l’absence de modèle théorique permettant de se représenter les pratiques liées à l’organisation des pouvoirs, un vide, avons-nous dit, entre ce qui n’est plus et ce qui n’est pas encore -, elles ouvrent aussi à leur manière la voie pour en sortir, en révélant les difficultés à résoudre, et d’abord la désarticulation des pouvoirs au sein des institutions nationales et leur fragmentation au sein des institutions supranationales; mais elles suggèrent aussi, de façon encore implicite, la montée en puissance des pouvoirs non institués qu’il faudra intégrer à la refondation.” In English: “If crises appear and first result in stalemate, revealing the absence of theoretical model to represent the practices related to organization of powers, a vacuum, as I have said, between what is no longer and what is not yet—they also open the way for their way out, revealing the difficulties to be resolved first and the disarticulation of power within national institutions and fragmentation within supranational institutions, but they also suggest, still implied the rise of powers not established that it will integrate with the refounding” (free translation).
- 38.
Hermitte (2007), pp. 145–146.
- 39.
Delmas-Marty (2007), p. 26. Neves, criticizing Habermas’ view, believes that Habermas’ notion of a “conscience of compulsory cosmopolitan solidarity” can “cover up serious problems that depend on variables far too complex to be dealt with adequately in the political and legal realm.” Of course, the abstract idea of a global republic without a government is a complex phenomenon, with multiple variables, hampered by various barriers such as culture and language; nonetheless, in our view, these variables and barriers are dealt with by Habermas and by Delmas-Marty (2007), p. 87.
- 40.
Cf. Alvarez (2005), pp. 965–966. Esta visão é particularmente apresentada por Jurgen Habermas, nos diferentes textos mais recentes, como Constelação Pós-Nacional, Era de Transições, entre outros, bem como Ulrich Beck, que identifica a construção de uma sociedade global de riscos. Na França, destaca-se os trabalhos de Marie-Angèle Hermitte, Christine Noiville e outros do Centre de Recherches en Sciences et Droit, da Universidade de Paris, com diferentes acepções sobre uma integração global construída ao redor do medo e da necessidade de sobrevivência.
- 41.
Cf. Beck (2001), pp. 36–37.
- 42.
Hermitte (2001).
- 43.
Scientific production is heavily concentrated in a few countries, with investments directed toward their own concerns. These investments are merely reproduced in peripheral countries, whether by reproducing standards of conduct, international legal norms based on locally produced knowledge, or even reproducing norms in poor countries based on knowledge produced by and for developed nations. The relationship between knowledge production and political power sets in place a new context for international hegemony. Cf. Delmas-Marty (2007), p. 196. See also Hermitte (2007).
- 44.
Delmas-Marty (2007), p. 13.
- 45.
Cf. De Estado (2006).
- 46.
“C’est justement dans ce contexte de déni et d’absence de perception des risques que se crée une communauté objective qui sest le produit de cette situation de menace globale. Derriére la diversité des intérêts qui sont en jeu, la réalité du risque ne cesse de menacer et de croître et elle ne connait plus ni différences ni frontières sociales ou nationales (…) Car c’est justement dans la façon de réagir aux risques qu’apparaissent de nombreuses différenciations sociales et de nombrux conflits d’un type nouveau. (…) On observe également une évolution de la signification politique et sociale du savoir et de l’accets aux vecteurs dl élaboration du savoir (science et recherche) et de sa diffusion medias de masse. A cet égard, la société du risque est aussi la société de la science, celles de médias et de l’information. En son sein se forgent de nouvelles oppositions entre ceux qui produisent les définitions du risque et ceux qui les consomment.” Beck (2001), p. 84.
- 47.
Hermitte (1996). There are many other recent accidents, as the silicone prothesis PIPO, that confirm the problem.
- 48.
Habermas (2001), p. 57.
- 49.
Beck (2001), p. 64.
- 50.
Latour (1989). Elsehwere, Latour has written, “Les sciences et les techniques ne sont pas remarquables parce qu’elles sont vraies ou efficaces – ces propriétés leur sont données par surcroît et pour de tout autres raisons que celles des épistémologues, mais parce qu’elles multiplient les non-humains enrôlés dans la fabrique des collectifs et qu’elles rendent plus intimes la communauté que nous formons avec ces êtres. C’est l’extension de la spirale, l’ampleur des enrôlements qu’elle va susciter, la distance de plus en plus grande où elle va recruter ces êtres qui caractérisent les sciences modernes et non pas quelque coupure épistémologique qui romprait pour toujours avec leur passé préscientifique. Les savoirs et les pouvoirs modernes ne sont pas différents en ce qu’ils échapperaient à la tyrannie du social, mais en ce qu’ils ajoutent beaucoup plus d’hybrides afin de recomposer le lien social et d’accroître encore son échelle. Non seulement la pompe à air, mais aussi les microbes, l’électricité, les atomes, les étoiles, les équations du second degré, les automates et les robos, les moulins et les pistons, l’inconscient et les neurotransmetteurs. A chaque fois, une nouvelle traduction de quasi-objets relance la redéfinition du corps social, des sujets comme des objets. Les sciences et les techniques, chez nous, ne reflètent pas plus la société que la nature ne reflète les structures sociales chez les autres. Il ne s’agit pas d’un jeu de miroirs. Il s’agit de construire les colectifs mêmes à des échelles chaque fois plus grandes. Il y a bien des différences de taille. Il n’y a pas de différences de nature – et encore moins de culture.” Latour (1991), pp. 146–147.
- 51.
Hermitte (2005), pp. 8–9.
- 52.
Various authors have discussed the topic. See, for example, the work of Ulrich Beck (society of risk), Niklas Luhman (sociology of risk), Marie-Angèle Hermitte (various works), who share a more critical view of the problem.
- 53.
Cf. Morand-Deviller (2005), pp. 45–59.
- 54.
Among the examples highlighted in the case were vitamin-enriched milk and fluorinated water. CJCE, Comission v. Denmark (C-192/01), Decision of 23/09/2003. According to the European Court, “Indeed, that practice, which requires that the marketing of foodstuffs enriched with vitamins and minerals coming from other Member States where they arc lawfully manufactured or marketed be made subject to proof of a nutritional need in the Danish population, makes the marketing of such foodstuffs more difficult, if not impossible, and, consequently, hinders trade between the Member States,” at para. 41.
- 55.
- 56.
Beck (2006), p. 339. The author cites, on the same page, that more than 50 % of decisions on risk are taken on European level and not on domestic level.
- 57.
Delmas-Marty (2003), p. 290.
- 58.
Resolutions 1267 (1999), 1333 (2000), 1390 (2002), as well as the resolutions reiterating these earlier ones, such as 1455 (2003), 1526 (2004), 1617 (2005), 1735 (2006), 1822 (2008), 1904 (2009), etc.
- 59.
Created by UN Security Council Resolution 955 (1994) for adjudication of war crimes committed in Rwanda in 1994.
- 60.
Created in 1993 for adjudication of crimes committed in the former Yugoslavia in the 1990s.
- 61.
Created in 2007 by Resolution 1757 (2007) for adjudication of the assassination of Prime Minister Rafik Harir and 22 others on February 14, 2005.
- 62.
These actions are the result of the United States’ intensified programs to combat drug trafficking in Colombia, which was at that point the world’s largest producer. Extradition from Colombia was a rule strongly affected by corruption and violence among drug traffickers in the 1980s and 1990s, to the point that it impacted the effectiveness of the U.S.–Colombia extradition treaty of 1979, which had been incorporated into domestic law in Colombia by Act No. 27 of 1980. In the 1980s, a number of judges and other public actors who refused to work with the traffickers were assassinated in Colombia, such as Minister of Justice Lara Bonilla, who was assassinated by the Medellín Cartel. Due to this situation and the constant pressure from the traffickers, the Colombia Supreme Court held the law unconstitutional on December 12, 1986, prohibiting the extradition of Colombians. The rule stood until 1997, when Article 35 of the Constitution was amended to allow extradition, though this amendment was not made retroactive. According to the United States’ interpretation, the treaty remained in force, and the United States eventually succeeded in extraditing several traffickers from the Medellín Cartel, such as Fabio Ochoa in 2001, and the Cali Cartel, such as Rodriguez Orejuela in 2004, among others. See Delmas-Marty (2003), pp. 272–273. On the extradition of Fabio Ochoa and Rodriguez Orejuela, respectively, see http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/8693.pdf; http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/62382.pdf (accessed March 17, 2012).
- 63.
I will discuss this on Chap. 6.
- 64.
Faria (2004), p. 259.
- 65.
“The need for crime in order to make society (and, in turn, law) progress is the object of Durkheim’s provocation. It is necessary that human originality be able to flourish; or, so that the originality of the idealist who dreams of surpassing her time may manifest itself, it is necessary that the originality of the criminal, which is ahead of its time, be possible. Each depends on the other.” Delmas-Marty (2003), p. 170. Durkheim follows the same logic. He says that crime contributes to making legal and moral values resistant to change. This requires that a criminal, ahead of her time, put in question the effectiveness of consolidated institutions and values. “Crime is therefore necessary. It is related to the basic conditions of any social life, yet for this reason it is useful, because the conditions needed for it to exist are themselves indispensable to the evolution of morality and law.” Durkheim (1973), p. 70.
- 66.
Brazil, China, Argentina, and other countries accepted the rules of the FATF, but implementation has been different in each case. See Machado (2011).
- 67.
Machado (2004).
- 68.
FATF. Available at http://www.fatf-gafi.org/, accessed February 16, 2012.
- 69.
- 70.
Oliveira (2012).
- 71.
Shadow corporations or société-écran are companies created by business groups in peripheral countries to hold little in terms of significant assets. They are designed to shield assets from potential lawsuits or avoid taxation by countries with high tax rates.
- 72.
Developed countries generally more resistant to international liability rules, when they are affected by major accidents, can mobilize political resources sufficient to alter the limits of liability. They have more political and legal mechanisms to create legal solutions to avoid or recover damages. After some major accidents, the international community created rules on strict liability, like the explosion in the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, central to the rise of strict liability for nuclear or other sensitive sectors, such as aerospace. The project of the International Law Commission moves to a greater extent at the global level, with the expansion of strict liability of the State, though not accepted by the international community in the form of a treaty. CDI (2001).
- 73.
Respectively, WTO Dispute Settlement Body, European Communities—Measures Affecting Asbestos and Products Containing Asbestos (WT/DS135); WTO Dispute Settlement Body, European Communities—Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products (Hormones) (WT/DS26, 48); and WTO Dispute Settlement Body, Brazil—Measures Affecting Imports of Retreaded Tyres (WT/DS332).
- 74.
The idea of variable, à la carte international law is a constant theme in Delmas-Marty’s work.
- 75.
Teubner (1997), p. 2.
- 76.
De Schutter (2004), p. 2.
- 77.
Teubner (1990 ), p. 80.
- 78.
See especially WTO/DSB, Japan—Measures Affecting Consumer Photographic Film and Paper (WT/DS44).
- 79.
They are countries with large populations and territories traditionally receptors immigration, where the displacement of its population are mainly domestic. The population of these countries tends to ignore most of the problems of the outside world. Sometimes, there is a vision of cultural superiority or empire over other neighboring regions. These are countries with a large and slow bureaucratic machine that although difficulties in taking quick decisions changing position in international politics. However, they could have a strong impact power when they act. The definition of the theory of international relations to these countries is “whales” as opposed to “Asian Tigers,” small countries with highly educated population and speed and ability to seize opportunities punctual, like Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Malaysia and the like.
- 80.
This point will be addressed infra in Chap. 3, in which I discuss private actors’ mechanisms for developing law.
- 81.
Teubner (2012), p. 9.
- 82.
Delmas-Marty (2003), pp. 152–153.
- 83.
Symbolic examples occurred in dozens of cases between parties with even greater asymmetry, such as Trinidad and Tobago versus the European Union (then European Communities) on the exporatation of bananas. Respectively, DSB/WTO, United States—Subsidies on Upland Cotton (WT/DS/267) and DSB/WTO. European Communities—Regime for the importation, sale and distribution of Bananas (WT/DS/27).
- 84.
Delmas-Marty (2003), pp. 152–153.
- 85.
Faria (2004), p. 78.
- 86.
- 87.
Faria (2004), p. 78.
- 88.
The direct relationship between trade and development is widely studied in terms of trade between developed and developing countries. However, the current situation, characterized by greater diversification of all the major countries’ exports shows that this direct relationship is not always observed. In technologically intensive structures, with trade between partners of the same level of development, impacts may be different. In this sense, see WTO and ILO (2007).
- 89.
Delmas-Marty (2007), p. 27. Civic actors, such as NGOs, are characterized thus by the author, given that they seem to foreshadow a global citizenship to be placed above national, and sometimes regional, citizenship, and can contribute to the emergence of a collective will. From the original: “Mais les ONG ont aussi leur propre pouvoir d’action, grâce à des budgets parfois considérables. (…) Ces acteurs ‘civiques’ puisqu’ils préfigurent une citoyenneté mondiale qui se superposerait à la citoyenneté nationale et parfois régionale (européenne notamment) – peuvent ainsi contribuer à l’émergence d’une volonté collective. En l’absence de toute démocratie représentative formelle, on peut voir dans ces mouvements de citoyens l’ébauche d’une démocratie participative, à la condition d’être attentif aux risques de clientélisme et d’instrumentalisation.” I use here the expression nongovernmental organization also to describe civic actors, noting that different organizations and authors also use this expression for economic or scientific actors. See, especially, Varella (2005), pp. 41–76.
- 90.
The number of NGOs recognized by the UN is roughly 3,500 with consultative status before the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), which gives access to nearly all of the intergovernmental processes of the United Nations, DPI-ONG, NU, Section des organisations non-gouvernementales, Accessed March 13, 2012.
- 91.
In the words of Focault, it is necessary to change actors’ roles. Those who govern do not listen; in general, they only speak and never stop speaking. In the original: “Amnesty International, Terre des hommes, Médicins du monde sont des initiatives qui ont créé ce droit nouveau: celui des individus privés à intervenir effectivement dans l’ordre des politiques et des stratégies internationales. La volonté des individus doit s’inscrire dans une réalité dont les gouvernements ont voulu se réserver le monopole, ce monopole qu’il faut arracher peu à peu et chaque jour.” Foucault (1994), p. 708.
- 92.
Examples include CITES and the Ramsar Convention, for which the International Union for Conservation of Nature housed the Secretariat.
- 93.
- 94.
Varella (2005), p. 45.
- 95.
Delmas-Marty (2003), pp. 26–27 and 165–166.
- 96.
- 97.
UNEP initially appointed the nongovernmental organization IUCN and delegated to it all of the functions of the Secretariat. This was provisionally done for 1 year but was extended until 1984, when the Permanent Committee questioned the designation, given that not all States were members of IUCN, making it inappropriate for them to submit to the NGO’s control. Lambert-Babib (2000), pp. 222–223.
- 98.
Varella (2005), p. 50.
- 99.
Delmas-Marty (2003), p. 169.
- 100.
Peters et al. (2009), p. 516.
- 101.
Laroche (2000), p. 137.
- 102.
Interview with Francisco Quintana, CEJIL, on 06.07.2012.
- 103.
DSB/WTO, United States—Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products (WT/DS58); DSB/WTO. European Communities—measures affecting asbestos and asbestos containing products (WT/DS135), among other cases.
- 104.
- 105.
Faria (2004), p. 174.
- 106.
Delmas-Marty (2003), p. 204.
- 107.
- 108.
Delmas-Marty (2003), pp. 196–197 and www.ipcc.ch (accessed July 29, 2010).
- 109.
- 110.
Toufayan (2010), p. 314.
- 111.
Ricoeur (2004), pp. 75–80 and Delmas-Marty (2003), pp. 227 and 250. Ricoeur reminds us that translation has always been an important element in cross-cultural contact. Emissaries were always accompanied by interpreters. The challenge now is to create mechanisms of translation for entire peoples that enter into direct contact. The difficulty lies in the fact that language is a reflection of culture and that it can be difficult, aside even from language, to understand others based on differences in culture.
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Varella, M.D. (2014). Factors and Actors Behind Greater Complexity in Contemporary International Law. In: Internationalization of Law. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-54163-6_2
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