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A General Theory on International Human Rights Standards

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China and International Human Rights

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Abstract

The general human rights law theory and China’s cooperation with the international human rights system constitute, respectively, essential theoretical and practical bases to explore the application of international human rights law to China. Such an investigation is necessary if China is to improve its human rights situation in preparation for China’s early ratification of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). In the field of international human rights, the national legal systems of sovereign States ‘offer the first line of defence’ against human rights violations. International human rights norms and the international organisations that attempt to uphold them on the international level also play an essential role in protecting human rights. Unfortunately, due to the ‘evident inadequacies and gross failures’ of many States in observing such norms, and to the inability of international organisations to act ‘in curbing human rights violations’, the gap between norms and domestic practices ‘becomes strikingly apparent’. This gap is ultimately what leads to many of the major disagreements during international human rights dialogues.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Evans, Malcolm D. (ed.). 2003. International law, 1st ed, 757. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 3rd ed.

  2. 2.

    Evans, Malcolm D. (ed.). 2003. International law, 1st ed, 762. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 3rd ed.

  3. 3.

    Evans, Malcolm D. (ed.). 2003. International law, 1st ed, 759. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 3rd ed.

  4. 4.

    ‘Statute of the Court’, available at http://www.icj-cij.org/documents/?p1=4&p2=2&p3=0 (last visited on 31th July 2013); see Chapter XIV of the UN Charter, e.g. Articles 93 and 94.

  5. 5.

    UN Doc. A/RES/2200A (XXI), 999/UNTS/302.

  6. 6.

    Malanczuk, Peter, and Michael Akehurst (ed.). 1997. Akehurst’s modern introduction to international law, 7th ed, 52. London/New York: Routledge.

  7. 7.

    1031/TS/993.

  8. 8.

    Article 55 of the UN Charter.

  9. 9.

    ‘Other Subsidiary Bodies’, United Nations Human Rights Council, available at: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/Pages/OtherSubBodies.aspx (last visited on 31 July 2013).

  10. 10.

    See ‘Establishing the Human Rights Council (2006)’, GA resolution 60/251.

  11. 11.

    See ‘Institution-Building of the United Nations Human Rights Council (2007)’, UNHRC resolution 5/1.

  12. 12.

    The GA ‘Third Committee’ is commonly referred to its Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Affairs Committee, dealing with social, humanitarian affairs or human rights issues that affect the world. See ‘Third Committee’, available at http://www.un.org/en/ga/third/index.shtml (last visited on 31 July 2013).

  13. 13.

    Boutros-Ghali, Boutros (intro.). c1995. The United Nations and human rights, 1945–1995, 5. New York: Department of Public Information, United Nations.

  14. 14.

    UN Doc. A/RES/217A (III).

  15. 15.

    Simma, Bruno (ed.). 2002. The Charter of the United Nations: A commentary, vol. II, 925/[26]. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  16. 16.

    Ibid./927/[34]; Henkin (ed.). c1990. The age of rights, 19. New York: Columbia University Press.

  17. 17.

    ‘International Instruments’, UN Human Rights OHCHR, available at http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Disability/Pages/Instruments.aspx (last visited on 31 July 2013).

  18. 18.

    UN Doc. A/RES/39/46.

  19. 19.

    660/UNTS/195.

  20. 20.

    UN Doc. A/RES/34/180.

  21. 21.

    UN Doc. A/RES/44/25.

  22. 22.

    Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports (1971), p. 16 [22].

  23. 23.

    It is the second element used to establish a legally binding custom, with state practice as the first in the area of international law. See Article 38(1)(b) of the ICJ Statute (e.g. the custom to be applied must be ‘accepted as law’).

  24. 24.

    Fassbender, Bardo. 2009. The United Nations Charter as the constitution of the international community, 1. Brill.

  25. 25.

    ‘Study on the Relationship Between Disarmament and Development: Report of the Secretary-General’, UN Doc.A/36/356(05/10/1981); ‘Final Document of the Tenth Special Session of the General Assembly’, UN Doc.A/S-10/2(30/06/1978).

  26. 26.

    Declaration on International Economic Cooperation, in particular the Revitalization of Economic Growth and Development of the Developing Countries’, UN Doc.A/RES/S-18/3(01/05/1990).

  27. 27.

    Supra note 15, 902/[10].

  28. 28.

    Ibid.

  29. 29.

    Ibid./[13].

  30. 30.

    Ibid./921–922/[13].

  31. 31.

    ‘Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action’, UN Doc.A/CONF.157/23(12/07/1993)I/[5].

  32. 32.

    Supra note 15, 923/[15].

  33. 33.

    It is a generally accepted principle of international law as a norm from which no derogation or violation is permitted in any forms, including international treaties, regional customs or general customary rules. See Prosecutor v. Furundzija, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 2002, 121 International Law Reports 213 (2002).

  34. 34.

    Supra note 15, 923/[17].

  35. 35.

    ‘Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action’, UN Doc.A/CONF.157/23(12/07/1993)I/[5].

  36. 36.

    Supra note 15, 923/[20].

  37. 37.

    Ibid./924/[20–21].

  38. 38.

    Ibid./[22].

  39. 39.

    Ibid./[23].

  40. 40.

    Ibid./942/[3].

  41. 41.

    Ibid.

  42. 42.

    See ‘Protection of human rights in Chile’, GA resolution 3448 (XXX) of 9 December 1975.

  43. 43.

    See ‘Situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo’, A/RES/60/170 of 9 March 2006.

  44. 44.

    See ‘Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran’, A/RES/60/171 of 9 March 2006.

  45. 45.

    See ‘Situation of human rights in Turkmenistan’, A/RES/60/172 of 9 March 2006.

  46. 46.

    See ‘Situation of human rights in Uzbekistan’, A/RES/60/174 of 14 March 2006.

  47. 47.

    See ‘Situation of human rights in Myanmar’, A/RES/60/233 of 23 March 2006.

  48. 48.

    Article 4 of the Charter.

  49. 49.

    Articles 1(3), 55(c) and 62(2) of the Charter.

  50. 50.

    Alston, in Alston/1992/4.

  51. 51.

    ICJ Reports/1950/71.

  52. 52.

    Jones/1979/224.

  53. 53.

    Article 2(7) of the UN Charter.

  54. 54.

    Rajan/1961/80.

  55. 55.

    Ibid./81.

  56. 56.

    Ibid./78–83.

  57. 57.

    It was the Charter of the League of Nations; see Northedge, F.S. 1986. The league of nations: Its life and times, 1920–1946. Leicester University Press.

  58. 58.

    It was created as an international court attached to the League of Nations in 1922 and was replaced with the ICJ in 1945. See Hudson, Manley O. 1957. The succession of the international court of justice to the permanent court of international. The American Journal of International Law 51(3): 569.

  59. 59.

    Nationality Decrees Issued in Tunis and Morocco (French Zone) on 8th November 1921, Series B, No.4 (7th February 1923), in Hudson, Manley O. (ed.). 1969. World court reports: A collection of the judgments, orders and opinions of the permanent court of international justice, volume I (1922–1926), 143–162. Washington, DC: Publications of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.

  60. 60.

    See Article 38 of the ICJ Statute; Schachter, Oscar. c1991. International law in theory and practice, 35. Dordrecht/London: Nijhoff.

  61. 61.

    McGoldrick, Dominic. 1994. The principle of non-intervention: Human rights. In The United Nations and the principles of international law: Essays in memory of Michael Akehurst, ed. Vaughan Lowe and Colin Warbrick, 86. London: Routledge.

  62. 62.

    Russell, Ruth B. 1958. A history of the United Nations Charter: The role of the United States, 1940–1945, 777–807, 900–910. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.

  63. 63.

    Lauterpacht, Hersh. 1968. International law and human rights, 145–165. Hamden: Archon Books; Schwelb, Egon. 1972. The international court of justice and the human rights clauses of the Charter. 66 The American Journal of International Law: 337–351; Rodley, Nigel S. 1989. Human rights and humanitarian intervention: The case law of the world court. 38 The International and Comparative Law Quarterly: 326.

  64. 64.

    Supra note 61.

  65. 65.

    Sieghart, Paul. 1976. The law of treaties and human rights. In Toward world order and human dignity: Essays in honor of Myres S. McDougal, ed. W. Michael Reisman and Burns H. Weston, 262–290. New York: The Free Press.

  66. 66.

    Supra note 15, I/154/[18].

  67. 67.

    Jennings, Robert, and Arthur Watts (ed.). 1992. Oppenheim’s international law, 9th ed, 427–451. Harlow: Longman.

  68. 68.

    McGoldrick, Dominic. 1994. The principle of non-intervention: Human rights. In The United Nations and the principles of international law: Essays in memory of Michael Akehurst, ed. Vaughan Lowe and Colin Warbrick, 87. London: Routledge.

  69. 69.

    ‘Declaration on the Inadmissibility of Intervention in the Domestic Affairs of States and the Protection of Their Independence and Sovereignty’, UN Doc.A/RES/2131(XX)(21/12/1965).

  70. 70.

    ‘Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations’, UN Doc. A/RES/2625(XXV)(24/10/1970).

  71. 71.

    Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, ICJ Reports (1986) p. 205.

  72. 72.

    Supra note 15, I/155/[20].

  73. 73.

    As a central element of the UN human rights machinery, the procedures are featured with independent human rights experts who report and advise human rights issues from thematic or country-specific perspectives. See ‘Institution-building of the United Nations Human Rights Council’, UNHRC resolution 5/1 (2007).

  74. 74.

    See Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Belarus, UNHRC Resolution 23/15; Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Cambodia, UNHRC Resolution 18/25; Independent Expert on the situation of human rights in Côte d’Ivoire, UNHRC Resolution 20/19; Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, UNHRC Resolution 23/21; Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, UNHRC Resolution 22/13; Independent Expert on the situation of human rights in Haiti, UNHRC Presidential Statement PRST 22/2; Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, UNHRC Resolution 22/23; Independent Expert on the situation of human rights in Mali, UNHRC resolution 22/18); Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Myanmar, UNHRC resolution 22/14; Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian territories occupied since 1967, CHR resolution 1993/2 A; Independent Expert on the situation of human rights in Somalia, UNHRC resolution 20/21; Independent Expert on the situation of human rights in the Sudan, UNHRC resolution 21/27; Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic (18th Special Session of the UNHRC S-18/1), available at http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/SP/Pages/Countries.aspx (last visited on 31 July 2013).

  75. 75.

    ‘Question of the violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms, including policies of racial discrimination and segregation and of apartheid, in all countries, with particular reference to colonial and other dependent countries and territories’, GA Resolution 2144 (XXI) of 26 October 1966, available at http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/21/ares21.htm (last visited on 31 July 2013).

  76. 76.

    ‘COMMUNICATIONS CONCERNING HUMAN RIGHTS’, ECOSOC 728F (XXVIII), 28 U.N. ESCOR Supp. (No. 1) at 19, U.N. Doc. E/3290 (1959), available at http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/procedures/728f.html (last visited on 31 July 2013).

  77. 77.

    ECOSOC Resolution 1164 (XLI), of 5 August 1966, text in UN doc. E/4264.

  78. 78.

    ‘Question of the violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms, including policies of racial discrimination and segregation and of apartheid, in all countries, with particular reference to colonial and other dependent countries and territories’, ECOSOC Resolution 1235 (XLII) of 6 June 1967, available at http://andrewclapham.org/HRClasses/HRreadings/Resolutions%20-%20Public%20dialogue%20on%20HR%20violations.pdf (last visited on 31 July 2013).

  79. 79.

    ‘Study and investigation of situations which reveal a consistent pattern of violations of human rights’, CHR Resolution 8 (XXIII) of 16 March 1967.

  80. 80.

    Nowak, Manfred. 1991. Country-orientation protection of human rights by the UN. Netherlands Yearbook of International Law: 86.

  81. 81.

    Ibid./85–86.

  82. 82.

    Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, Paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports (1962), p. 230.

  83. 83.

    Supra note 80, p. 85.

  84. 84.

    ETS 5; 213 UNTS 221; available at http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/z17euroco.html (last visited on 31 July 2013).

  85. 85.

    Supra note 1, p. 772.

  86. 86.

    Zoller, Elisabeth. 1987. The ‘corporate will’ of the United Nations and the rights of the minority. 81 American Journal of International Law: 610.

  87. 87.

    Howell, John M. 1969. A matter of international concern. 63 American Journal of International Law: 776.

  88. 88.

    Supra note 86.

  89. 89.

    ‘Question of the Violation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Including Policies of Racial Discrimination and Segregation and of Apartheid, In All Countries, With Particular Reference to Colonial and Other Dependent Countries and Territories’, UN Doc.A/RES/2144[A](26/10/1966); ‘National Institutions for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights’, UN Doc.A/RES/3449(XXX)(23/11/1979); ‘Situation of Human Rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran’, UN Doc.A/RES/43/137(08/12/1988); ‘Situation of Human Rights in Iraq’, UN Doc. A/RES/46/134(17/12/1991).

  90. 90.

    Ian Brownlie, B. 1990. Principles of public international law, 4th ed, 291, 254. Oxford: Clarendon.

  91. 91.

    Supra note 59, pp. 161–162.

  92. 92.

    Supra note 15, I/160/[36].

  93. 93.

    Supra note 80, p. 86.

  94. 94.

    As recognised in the ICJ’s decision in the Barcelona Traction case, erga omnes obligations are owed by States towards the international community as a whole, due to the universal interest in the perpetuation of basic human rights and in the prevention of their violations. See Belgium v Spain, ICJ Report 1970 3 at paragraph 33.

  95. 95.

    See ICJ Reports/1970/33/[33-34]; ICJ Reports/1980/42/[91]; ‘Advisory Opinion Concerning Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory’, ICJ (9 July 2004), available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/414ad9a719.html (last visited on 31 July 2013).

  96. 96.

    ‘Summary Record of the Second Part(Public) of the 43rd Meeting’, UN Doc.E/C.12/1998/SR.43/Add.1(27/11/1998).

  97. 97.

    Report of the SG, ‘Strengthening of United Nations Action in the Field of Human Rights through the Promotion of International Cooperation and the Importance of Non-Selectivity, Impartiality and Objectivity’, UN Doc.E/CN.4/1993/30(18/12/1993)6(b)/Mexico.

  98. 98.

    ICJ Reports/1962/168.

  99. 99.

    Watson, J.S. 1977. Autointerpretation, competence and continuing validity of article 2(7) of the UN Charter. 71 American Journal of International Law: 66.

  100. 100.

    Farer, Tom J., and Felice Gaer. 1993. The UN and human rights: At the end of the beginning. In United Nations, divided world: The UN’s roles in international relations, ed. Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury, 2nd ed, 296. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

  101. 101.

    Ibid.

  102. 102.

    Ibid.

  103. 103.

    Quinn, John. 1992. The general assembly into the 1990s. In The United Nations and human rights: A critical appraisal, ed. Philip Alston, 105–106. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

  104. 104.

    Supra note 1, p. 764.

  105. 105.

    ‘Enlargement of the Commission on the Status of Women’, ECOSOC resolution 1987/22.

  106. 106.

    ‘Follow-up to the Fourth World Conference on Women’, ECOSOC resolution 1996/6.

  107. 107.

    ‘Proposals for a multi-year programme of work for the Commission on the Status of Women for 2002–2006’, ECOSOC resolution 2001/4.

  108. 108.

    ‘Future organisation and methods of work of the Commission on the Status of Women’, ECOSOC resolution 2006/9, available at http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/docs/2006/resolution%202006-9.pdf (last visited on 31 July 2013).

  109. 109.

    ‘Future organisation and methods of work of the Commission on the Status of Women’, ECOSOC resolution 2009/15, available at http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/docs/2009/resolution%202009-15.pdf (last visited on 31 July 2013).

  110. 110.

    Supra note 1., p. 769.

  111. 111.

    ‘High Commissioner for the Promotion and Protection of All Human Rights’, UN Doc.A/RES/48/141(20/12/1993).

  112. 112.

    ‘UN creates new human rights body’, BBC, 15 March 2006.

  113. 113.

    See ‘Main points: Universal periodic review launched’, 1 November 2007; see ‘More details on: Information note for NGOs regarding the Universal Periodic Review mechanism (as of 16 October 2007)’, 1 November 2007.

  114. 114.

    See ‘Human Rights Council Advisory Committee’, UN Human Rights Council, 11 August 2009.

  115. 115.

    ‘Human Rights Council Complaint Procedure’, UN Human Rights OHCHR, available at: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/ComplaintProcedure/Pages/HRCComplaintProcedureIndex.aspx (last visited on 31 July 2013).

  116. 116.

    Ibid.

  117. 117.

    ‘Special Procedures of the Human Rights Council’, UN Human Rights OHCHR, available at: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/SP/Pages/Introduction.aspx (last visited on 31 July 2013).

  118. 118.

    Ibid.

  119. 119.

    For example, human rights situations in Burma, Guinea, North Korea, Côte d’Ivoire, Kyrgyzstan, Syria, Libya, Iran, and Sri Lanka.

  120. 120.

    ‘USCIRF Welcomes Move Away from ‘Defamation of Religions’ concept’; UNOG, ‘Human Rights Council Establishes Working Group on Discrimination against Women in Law and Practice’; http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=11167&LangID=E; http://www.pinknews.co.uk/2011/12/16/un-publishes-first-global-report-and-recommendations-to-tackle-gay-rights-abuses/; ‘HRC Freedom of Opinion and Expression Resolution’; ‘Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association’; ‘UN Adopts Resolution on Sri Lanka War Crimes Probe’; Human Rights Watch, ‘UN: Rights Body Acts Decisively on Iran, Cote d’Ivoire’; ISHR, ‘http://www.ishr.ch/council/376-council/1030-human-rights-council-follows-up-to-special-sessions-on-cote-divoire-a-libya’; ‘UN calls for investigation into Houla killings in Syria’; Human Rights Watch. ‘UN: Rights Council Condemns Violations in Kyrgyzstan’; ‘Côte d’Ivoire: UN Human Rights Council strongly condemns post-electoral abuses’; ISHR, ‘Human Rights Council follows up to special sessions on Cote d’Ivoire & Libya’; Human Rights Watch, ‘UN Human Rights Council: Positive Action on Burma, Guinea, North Korea’; Secretary-General urges human rights activists to ‘fill leadership vacuum’, hold world leaders to account, in address to international day event, UN Department of Public Information (8 December 2008); UN’s Ban faults rights council over Israel, Reuters (reprinted in Ynet News) (21 June 2007); Human Rights Council president wants reform, SwissInfo (29 September 2007); Lynch, Colum (1 April 2009), ‘U.S. to Seek Seat on U.N. Human Rights Council’. The Washington Post; Patrick, Stewart, ‘The Human Rights Council: Give Credit Where Credit is Due’; Traub, James, ‘U.N. Human Rights Council Condemns Actual Human Rights Abusers!’; ‘UN General Assembly Resolution 60/251.8’; http://blogs.aljazeera.com/topic/syria/syria-iran-run-un-human-rights-council-envoys; ‘UN General Assembly Resolution 60/251.8’; ‘United Nations Human Rights Council, Sessions’.

  121. 121.

    See ‘Human Rights Bodies’, United Nations Human Rights OHCHR, available at: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/Pages/HumanRightsBodies.aspx (last visited on 31 July 2013).

  122. 122.

    Miko Lempinen, and Martin Scheinin, ‘The New Human Rights Council: The First Two Years’, available at: http://www.eui.eu/Documents/DepartmentsCentres/AcademyofEuropeanLaw/Projects/HRCReport.pdf (last visited on 31 July 2013).

  123. 123.

    Ibid.

  124. 124.

    ‘Human Rights Council’, UN Doc.A/RES/60/251[1].

  125. 125.

    Ibid./[5].

  126. 126.

    Ibid./[5–6].

  127. 127.

    Ibid./[10].

  128. 128.

    Ibid./[7–8].

  129. 129.

    Ibid./[9].

  130. 130.

    Ibid.

  131. 131.

    ‘[United Nations Human Rights Council]’, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/Pages/AboutCouncil.aspx

  132. 132.

    Ibid.

  133. 133.

    ‘Human Rights Council’, UN Doc.A/RES/60/251/[8].

  134. 134.

    OHCHR 4.

  135. 135.

    ‘Human Rights Council review’, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/Pages/HRCReview.aspx

  136. 136.

    ‘UN creates new human rights body’, BBC (15 March 2006), http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4810538.stm

  137. 137.

    Secretary-General urges human rights activists to ‘fill leadership vacuum’, hold world leaders to account, in address to international day event, UN Department of Public Information (8/12/2008).

  138. 138.

    UN’s Ban faults rights council over Israel, Reuters (Ynet News (21/06/2007); Human Rights Council president wants reform, SwissInfo (29/09/2007).

  139. 139.

    See Colum Lynch, ‘U.S. to Seek Seat on U.N. Human Rights Council’, The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/31/AR2009033104115.html (1 April 2009).

  140. 140.

    See Stewart Patrick, ‘The Human Rights Council: Give Credit Where Credit is Due’, http://blogs.cfr.org/patrick/2012/06/01/the-human-rights-council-give-credit-where-credit-is-due/ (1 June 2012); James Traub, ‘U.N. Human Rights Council Condemns Actual Human Rights Abusers!’, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/06/01/not_just_for_israel_anymore. (1 June 2012).

  141. 141.

    See Human Rights Watch, ‘UN Human Rights Council: Positive Action on Burma, Guinea, North Korea’ (March 26, 2010); see also ‘Côte d’Ivoire: UN Human Rights Council strongly condemns post-electoral abuses’ (December 23, 2010), http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37154&Cr=ivoire&Cr1; International Service for Human Rights, ‘Human Rights Council follows up to special sessions on Cote d’Ivoire & Libya’, http://www.ishr.ch/council/376-council/1030-human-rights-council-follows-up-to-special-sessions-on-cote-divoire-a-libya (October 29, 2012); Human Rights Watch, ‘UN: Rights Body Acts Decisively on Iran, Cote d’Ivoire’ (March 25, 2011); ‘UN Adopts Resolution on Sri Lanka War Crimes Probe’ (March 22, 2012), http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-17471300

  142. 142.

    See ‘Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association’, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/AssemblyAssociation/Pages/SRFreedomAssemblyAssociationIndex.aspx; see ‘HRC Freedom of Opinion and Expression Resolution’, A/HRC/12/L.14/Rev.1 (Sep. 30, 2009); ‘Human Rights Council establishes Working Group on Discrimination against Women in Law and Practice’(Oct. 1, 2010), http://www.unog.ch/unog/website/news_media.nsf/%28httpNewsByYear_en%29/8F251FD6784ECACAC12577AF0034868F; 3/24/2011: USCIRF Welcomes Move Away from ‘Defamation of Religions’ concept, http://www.uscirf.gov/news-room/press-releases/3570-uscirf-welcomes-move-away-from-defamation-of-religions-concept.html

  143. 143.

    See Frank Jordans, ‘UN group backs gay rights for the 1st time ever’ (June 17, 2011), http://www.gazette.com/articles/rights-120021-backs-time.html

  144. 144.

    ‘Stronger treaty monitoring for better human rights results’, UN Human Rights OHCHR, available at: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/newyork/Stories/Pages/strongertreatymonitoringforbetterhumanrightsresults.aspx (last visited on 31 July 2013).

  145. 145.

    Meron, Theodor (ed.). 1984. Human rights in international law: Legal and policy issues, 369–370. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

  146. 146.

    Ibid.

  147. 147.

    Ibid.

  148. 148.

    Ibid.

  149. 149.

    Ibid./371.

  150. 150.

    Bailey, in Alston/1992/332.

  151. 151.

    Tams, Christian J. 2005. Enforcing obligations Erga Omnes in international law, 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  152. 152.

    Ibid./3.

  153. 153.

    ICJ Reports/1970/32/[34].

  154. 154.

    Ibid./[33].

  155. 155.

    Ibid./[34].

  156. 156.

    Ibid.

  157. 157.

    Byers, Michael. 1997. Conceptualising the relationship between Jus Cogens and Erga Omnes rules. 66 Nordic Journal of International Law: 230.

  158. 158.

    Ragazzi, Maurizio. 1997. The concept of international obligations Erga-Omnes, 17. Oxford: Clarendon.

  159. 159.

    ICJ Reports/1970/32/[33].

  160. 160.

    Ibid./[34].

  161. 161.

    Ibid.

  162. 162.

    de Hoogh, Andre. c1996. Obligations Erga Omnes and international crimes: A theoretical inquiry into the implementation and enforcement of the international responsibility of states, 94. Hague/Boston: Kluwer International Law.

  163. 163.

    Supra note 157, p. 215.

  164. 164.

    ICJ Reports/1970/32/[34].

  165. 165.

    Supra note 156, p. 232.

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  1. College for Criminal Law Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China

    Na Jiang

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Jiang, N. (2014). A General Theory on International Human Rights Standards. In: China and International Human Rights. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-44902-4_1

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