Abstract
In order to understand human neuromuscular function, Luigi Galvani had to face the problem relative to the way in which “animal electricity” may be stored in animal tissue. Searching for a solution, Galvani built a hybrid model which constitutes a “nested analogy”. This model satisfies constraints provided by objects of his work environment. I defend the claim that the model visual structure is based on a factual or physical scenario—as opposed to counterfactual or imaginary. But this assertion does not imply that the visual structure comes from an existing structure recognized as the target.
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Notes
- 1.
“Medical Electricity” arrived to Italy in 1745. Luigi Sale was mentioned among the first ones to use it as a curative therapy. In Venice, Gianfrancesco Pivati, pretended having discovered a new method in the application of electricity to cure deeply rooted illnesses immediately. Since the publication of his book Dell’elettricità medica in 1747, it arose a controversy about the use of electricity in medical therapy in Italy. It lasted until 1750 and expanded over all Europe. Because of that, the Academy of Bologna asked Giuseppe Veratti the task of testing experimentally the efficiency of the therapeutic method proposed by Pivati. The experiments -which confirmed the goodness of the method—were published in the book Osservacioni fisico-mediche intorno all’elettricità in Bologna during 1748. However, Veratti was careful in accepting Electric Medicine without any restriction. Galvani took this point of view, too.
- 2.
According to Albrecht von Haller, muscles have an intrinsic capacity (“irritability”) to contract in response to physiological or experimental stimulations. For instance, in response to a needle prick. Nerves may produce muscle contraction activating this intrinsic capacity, but they are not effective agents of the contraction. On the other hand, the neuroelectric theory, held by Tommaso Laghi, defended that the matter contained within the nerves, presumably of electric nature, is the “efficient” cause of the muscle movement.
- 3.
Franklin’s theory of electricity held that there is only one sort of electrical fluid which exists in all bodies. The body that contains a normal amount of electricity or which is in balance is a “non electrified” body; this implies that it produces non observable effects. However, a non electrified body can become unbalanced: it can gain electrical fluid and thus, reach a positive state (plus), or it can lose something of its natural amount, resting in a negative state (minus). Electrification is the process by which a body with a normal amount of electricity receives further fluid from a positively electrified body and gives fluid to a negatively charged body. Electrification can be produced through conduction—like when two bodies touch each other or are near enough to allow a spark to pass between both of them through the air. A conductor can make the electricity flux move by making contact between opposed electricity charges, thus, restoring equilibrium in an unbalanced body.
- 4.
The debate among hallerian and neuroelectric theories supporters was particularly strong in the 1755–1760 period. In Bologna, Italy, Fontana was on the side of Haller, and the academic establishment members defended the electric nature of the nervous conduction. Since 1750 to 1770 the hallerian system became accepted by the majority. But, this situation would change. Since 1770 the neuroelectric theory was rehabilitated as a consequence of research on “electric fish”, which showed that some animals, like the Torpedo and the Gymnotus have inherent electricity by nature [5].
- 5.
Experimental results relating to the fact that muscle contractions arises when a conductive arch is put over the prepared frog limbs, but nothing happens without the application of the conductive arch led Galvani to think that an electricity inherent to the animal does exist. “But when I brought the animal into a closed room, placed it on an iron plate, and began to press the hook which was fastened in the spinal cord against the plate, behold!, the same contractions and movements occurred as before. I immediately repeated the experiment in different pieces with different metals and at different hours of the day. The results were the same except that the contractions varied with the metals used (…). These results surprised us greatly and led us to suspect that the electricity was inherent in the animal itself” [11].
- 6.
Pietr van Musschenbroek from Holand, a famous experimentalist physicist of the Leiden University, was considered the creator of the first electrical condenser, the “Leyden Jar”. Electricity stored within this jar is positive, and the one on the outer side is negative. They are separated from each other through an insulator (glass). When electricity is in balance there is as much positive as negative electricity at each side of the insulator. If electricity is unbalanced, the excess of electricity is repelled or relieved. If, for instance, water contained within the jar is electrified by a metal conductor introduced in it, unbalance happens and, therefore, an electrical discharge takes place. Electrical fluid can be put in circulation in such a way that equilibrium is restored, by a conductor arch linking the outer and the inner side of the jar [6].
- 7.
According to Donald Schön, professional competence is a way of building the world that allows to manage problems, i.e., singular, uncertain and conflictive practical situations; and design is the main ontological process for the professional art exercise. In a general sense, design is the imposition of an own coherence. The designer, the prototype of which would be the architect, has a repertoire of examples to which he can resort to, in order to know and act. When professionals give sense to a situation taken as singular, they apply something of their repertoire.
- 8.
According to Giere’s account, there are physical—three dimensional—models based reasonings, that can be understood as distributed cognitive processes instantiated by a system made of those physical models and persons. The mentioned models contain information and the humans extracts the seeked structure from them directly. It is not required to operate logically over “inner” representations, it is sufficient to interact in a physical and perceptual way with “outer” representations.
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Schwartz, N.A. (2014). A Historical Case Study of a “Nested Analogy”. In: Magnani, L. (eds) Model-Based Reasoning in Science and Technology. Studies in Applied Philosophy, Epistemology and Rational Ethics, vol 8. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-37428-9_25
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