Abstract
This paper proposes to do two things: sketch out the development of a stock of shared information and judgment on a given topic—“the newspaper”—through the various late Qing encyclopaedias; and sketch out the actual use of late Qing encyclopaedias as an information base for the new form of examinations that came with the “Reform of Governance,” Xinzheng 新政, beginning in 1901. In the Chinese entries the term bao 報 refers to a periodical publication. The word “newspaper” will here be used as shorthand for “periodical publication.”
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Notes
- 1.
Rudolf Wagner, “Wan Qing xinzheng yu xixue baike quanshu” 晚清新政與西學百科全書 [The late Qing ‘New Governance’ and encyclopaedias of Western knowledge], in Jindai Zhongguo de baike cishu 近代中國的百科辭書 [Early modern Chinese encyclopaedic works], eds. Chen Pingyuan 陳平原 and Miliena 米列娜 [= Milena Doleželová-Velingerová] (Beijing: Beijing daxue, 2007), 33–56. See also Figure 1 in the Introduction.
- 2.
Abraham Rees’s (1743–1825) The Cyclopædia (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme & Brown, 1819–1820) was one of these works, especially appreciated by dissenting clergy who dominated the early English missionary efforts. It is called a xi-guo-luo-bi-li-ya 西果儸彼釐亞 by Lin Zexu 林則徐 and not a “leishu” 類書. Lin Zexu, “Yangshi zalu 洋事雑錄” [Miscellaneous notes on Western affairs]. 1846. Unpubl. manuscript in Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences. Transcribed into simplified characters in “Lin Zexu ‘Yangshi zalu’” 林则徐《洋事杂录》 [Lin Zexu’s Miscellaneous notes on Western affairs], by Chen Depei 陈德培, Lin Yongyu 林永俣, and Meng Pengxing 孟彭興. Zhongshan daxue xuebao (shehuikexue ban), no. 3 (1986): 14–34. Hugh Murray’s (1779–1846) The Encyclopaedia of Geography (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea and Blanchard, 1837) was used by Lin Zexu for his Record of the Four Continents, Sizhou zhi 四洲志 1839 (excerpts preserved in Wang Xiqi, 1897). Articles from the Encyclopaedia Britannica (9th ed. 1875–1879) were translated into Chinese, including such articles as “International Law” by Edmund Robertson (1845–1911), translated by John Fryer (1839–1928) and Wang Zhensheng 汪振聲 as Gongfa zonglun 公法總論, and appearing in Xixue fuqiang congshu 西學富強叢書 [Collection of books of Western learning [to make the state] rich and powerful], Zhang Yinhuan 張蔭桓, comp., section “Faxue” 法學 [law] (Shanghai: Hongwen, 1896). The list of books brought to China by Young John Allen in 1859 contains many such encyclopaedic works, see “Young J. Allen’s Personal Library Brought with him from Georgia to China in 1859–1860,” in Adrian A. Bennett, Missionary Journalist in China. Young J. Allen and his Magazines, 1860–1883 (Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1983), 289–292. Entries in Chambers’s Information for the People were an important source for the Liuhe congtan 六合叢談 with the English title Shanghae Serial. See the study by Reynolds in the present volume, p. 155.
- 3.
Cf. Lionel Giles, An alphabetical index to the Chinese Encyclopaedia, (London: British Museum, 1911), 18.
- 4.
Pan Guangzhe 潘光哲, Huashengdun zai Zhongguo—zhizuo ‘guofu’ 華盛頓在中國—製作<國父> [Washington in China: manufacturing a father of the nation] (Taipei: Sanmin shuju, 2006); Rudolf Wagner, “The Image of the Public Leader out of the Chinese Crisis,” (unpublished paper, 2010).
- 5.
The eight works are identified subsequently in the text by the pound or hash sign (#) and the number given in this list.
- 6.
Shen Chun 沈純, comp., Xishi leibian 西事類編 (Shanghai: Shenbaoguan, 1887).
- 7.
These are: the (extant and earlier) Xishi li ce 西事蠡測 [Tidbits on Western affairs], a work finished probably in 1883, an 18-page excerpt of which is included in Wang Xiqi 王錫祺, Xiaofanghuzhai yudi congchao 小方壺齋輿地叢鈔 (1897) (Hangzhou: Hangzhou guji shudian, 1985); Yangwu jiyao 洋務輯要 [Core elements of Western affairs], a work mentioned in the preface to the Xishi leibian of which I have not located a copy; and Geguo shiwu leibian 各國時務類編 [Classified compilation of contemporary affairs of the different foreign nations], a work in 18 juan bound in 4 ce and published before 1884 in Shanghai. While no copy has yet been located, it is listed with this information by Zhao Weixi (1860–1917) 趙惟熙 in his Xixue shumu dawen 西學書目答問 [Answers to questions about books on Western learning] (Guiyang: Guiyang xueshu, 1901), 18a. The difference in the number of chapters indicates that this is not a reprint of the Xishi leibian with a different title. No copy has been located.
- 8.
Qian Feng 錢豊, comp., Wanguo fenlei shiwu dacheng 萬國分類時務大成 (Shanghai: Shenjiang Xiuhai shanfang, 1897).
- 9.
Zhang Yunyu 張韞玉, “Wanguo fenlei shiwu dacheng xu” 萬國分類時務大成敍 [Preface], in Qian Feng, comp., Wanguo fenlei shiwu dacheng, 1a.
- 10.
Qilu zhuren 杞盧主人, comp., Shiwu tongkao 時務通考 (Shanghai: Dianshizhai, 1897).
- 11.
Qilu zhuren, “Xu” 序 [Preface], in Qilu zhuren, comp. Shiwu tongkao, 1b.
- 12.
Dianshizhai zhuren 點石齋主人, comp. Shiwu tongkao xubian 時務通攷續編 [Comprehensive examination of current affairs. Sequel] (Shanghai: Dianshizhai, 1901), 1.
- 13.
Tang Lanmeng 唐蘭孟, comp., Li Timotai 李提摩太 [= Timothy Richard], ed., Ren Tingxu 任廷旭, tr., Guangxue leibian 廣學類編 [parallel title: Handy cyclopedia] (Shanghai: Guangxuehui, 1901; Reprint Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1903).
- 14.
Chen Changshen 陳昌紳, comp., Fenlei shiwu tongzuan 分類時務通纂 (Shanghai: Wenlan shuju, 1902. Reprint, Beijing: Beijing tushuguan, 2005).
- 15.
Xie, Ruochao 謝若潮, ed., Xixue santong 西學三通 [Three compilations of Western learning], Yuan Zonglian 袁宗濂 and Yan Zhiqing 晏志清, comps., Lithograph, (Shanghai: Cuixin shuguan, 1902).
- 16.
Xie Ruochao 謝若潮, Tiekuo zhenzhong mi 帖括枕中秘 [Pillow secrets of the examination] (N.p., 1886).
- 17.
Sun Yirang, Zhouli zhengyao, 2 vols. (Ruian: Putong xuetang, 1902).
- 18.
Huang Ren 黃人 [=Huang Moxi 黃摩西], comp. Putong baike xin da cidian 普通百科新大辭典. Prefaces by the author and Yan Fu 嚴復 (Shanghai: Zhongguo cidian gongsi, 1911).
- 19.
Cheng Xianchao 程咸焯, “Xu” 序 [Preface] to Xishi leibian, comp. Shen Chun, 1b.
- 20.
More evidence of this shared concern for fact-based information is provided in the studies by Douglas Reynolds and Natascha Gentz in this volume.
- 21.
The Hyakka zensho 百科全書 [Encyclopaedia/Complete work of a 100 disciplines] (Tokyo: Mombusho, 1875–1885) is a translation of Chambers’s Information for the People published in separate and independent instalments. Originally, this work also appeared in separate and independent instalments. For relevant Japanese encyclopaedias see Rudolf Wagner, “Chinese Encyclopedic Works 1840–1937, their Japanese and Western Models and Sources. Continuously Updated Metadata for the Database HEIDENC.”
- 22.
Western encyclopaedias also have been struggling with this problem. Cross-referencing and detailed indexes were to help find content linkages across the formal arrangement. In a more radical departure, information contained in Chambers’s Cyclopaedia (1728) with its alphabetical sequence was repackaged into 100 extensive topical entries (“Astronomy,” “Horse,” “Kitchen Garden”) in Chambers’s Information for the People (1,835, many later editions) with access to terms through an alphabetical index. The encyclopaedic series coming out in England, Germany, Japan and eventually China followed the same principle, but without an overall index.
- 23.
Even the handbook of model essays, Zhong wai zheng yi cefu tongzong 中外政藝策府統宗 [Comprehensive summary of Imperial Examinations about government and technical learning in China and foreign countries] (1901), which reserves a separate chapter for the newspapers, places them after the postal service although the actually selected texts have nothing to do with it. As Natascha Gentz shows in her article in this volume, the section consists of articles taken from independent newspapers, in most cases the Shenbao, not from a government gazette, Yishu hui zhuren 譯書會主人, comp. Zhong wai zheng yi cefu tongzong 中外政藝策府統宗 (Shanghai: Zhong wai yishu hui, 1901), juan 24. Another such compilation from the same year also has a separate chapter with articles on newspapers, and inserts them into an environment that has to do with schools and education. Shao Zhitang 邵之棠, comp., Huangchao jingshiwen tongbian 皇朝經世文統編 [A comprehensive compilation of statecraft essays from our august dynasty] (Shanghai, Baosha zhai, 1901), Section 15, “Bao” 報 [Newspapers] in juan 15 of the part Wenjiao 文教.
- 24.
The other subsections of this category are governance, zhi 治, education, jiao 教, law, fa 法, finance, cai 財, agriculture, nong 農, commerce, shang 商, industry, gong工, and military, bing 兵.
- 25.
“Fenlei mulu” 分類目錄 [Index of classification categories], in Putong baike xin dacidian, comp. Huang Ren, 43b–44b.
- 26.
Wang Yanlun 王言綸 et al., eds., Riyong Baike quanshu 日用百科全書 [parallel title: Everyday Cyclopedia]. (Shanghai: Shangwu, 1919).
- 27.
Huang Shaoxu 黃紹緒 et al., eds., Chongbian Riyong baike quanshu 重編日用百科全書 [Completely revised Everyday Cyclopedia], 3 vols. (Shanghai: Shanghai shangwu, 1934), 1:58–82.
- 28.
Shen Chun, comp., Xishi leibian, juan 6: 15b.
- 29.
This identification is not fully supported by the transcription here, because our text failed to copy the bu 卜, which would have given Moleng Bushi, a solid transcription of the Morning Post. When Liu Xihong was in London, this paper was indeed famous for its “court notices.” See Wilfrid Hope Hindle, The Morning Post, 1772–1937: portrait of a newspaper (London: Taylor and Francis, 1937), 205.
- 30.
The Chinese reference is to the Peking Gazette and the regional gazettes.
- 31.
The source is Liu Xihong 劉錫鴻, Ying yao riji 英軺日記 [Diary of an assignment to England]. I am not sure what kind of copies or excerpts of Liu’s diary as a vice-ambassador in London circulated. The only other early excerpt printing this passage I found in Wang Xiqi 王錫祺, Xiaofanghuzhai yudi congchao 小方壺寨輿地叢鈔, (1897; repr. Hangzhou: Hangzhou guji shidian, 1985), set 11, 167b. In the brackets I have indicated the differences between the Xishi leibian text and the Wang Xiqi text.
- 32.
Xishi leibian, juan 6: 16a.
- 33.
Xishi leibian, juan 6: 18a. Zeng Jize succeeded Guo Songtao. His diary is available as The Diary of Zeng Jize, Zeng Jize riji 曾紀澤日記 (Changsha: Yuelu shushe, 1998).
- 34.
For the source, see Li Gui 李圭, Huanyou diqiu xin lu 環游地球新錄 [New account of a trip around the globe] (Changsha: Yuelu shushe, 1985), 237. In the original a “Western friend” is speaking. He is also the person who has heard about the British women’s demands. He originally ends with “although this is unheard of, they still do seem to have a point,” but the latter part has been cut by Shen.
- 35.
Xishi leibian, juan 6: 19b.
- 36.
Li also made sure he talked to the editor of the New York Sun in person, who told him, “In New York there are over 60 newspapers, with the [New York] Sun reigning supreme. All matters from the court down to the villages are reported there.” Li Gui, Huanyou diqiu xin lu, 275. For the fine identification of the name of the paper, which in Chinese is given as Di Sen Bao 滴森報, The Sun—namely the New York Sun—, see Charles Desnoyers, A Journey to the East. Li Gui’s A New Account of a Trip Around the Globe (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004), 187. While Shen is careful to stay close to the original, he is also willing to extract simply the key information and leave out the rest. The little piece here reads in the original: 紐城報館大小六十餘傢, 渠館每日出報十四万張, 有極大印字機六具。報館之大, 英國泰吾士而外, 滴森稱最. 又云新報紙上至朝廷, 下逮閭閻事, 無不具。This passage is simplified and summarized as 美國紐約大小新報館六十餘家以滴森報為最。上自朝廷, 下逮閭閻, 無事不具. “Among the more than 60 big and small New York papers, The Sun stands out. From the court above to the popular quarters below, everything is covered.”
- 37.
Qian Feng, Wanguo fenlei shiwu dacheng, juan 14: 50a.
- 38.
On this ideal see my “The Zhouli as the Late Qing Path to the Future,” 376–378.
- 39.
The details of the story in Zuozhuan 左傳, Duke Xiang 襄公, 31st year. Zichan has been eulogized for this enlightened attitude by, among others, Han Yu 韓愈. See Fang Jie 方介, “Han Yu ‘Zichan bu hui xiangxiao song’ xilun” 韓愈《子產不毀鄉校頌》析論 [An analysis of Han Yu’s ‘A word of praise for Zichan’s NOT tearing down the village schools’], in Taida wenshi zhexue bao 67 (2007): 63–82.
- 40.
Anon. “Die Zeitungen der Erde,” Archiv für Post und Telegraphie 7 (1886), 284–285.
- 41.
For a systematic study of China’s first generation of journalists, including Wang Tao, see Natascha Vittinghoff, Die Anfänge des Journalismus in China (1862–1911) (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2002).
- 42.
Huang Ren, Putong baike xin dacidian, 13 strokes, entry #151.
- 43.
Huang Ren, Putong baike xin dacidian, 18 strokes, entry #50.
- 44.
Wang and Ye, Xin Erya (Taibei: wenhai shuju, [1903] 1977).
- 45.
Sun Yirang, Zhouli zhengyao, 52–53.
- 46.
James Legge, trans. “The Shoo King, or The Book of Historical Documents,” in The Chinese Classics, James Legge, ed. vol. 3 (1861; reprint, Taipei: Wen shi zhe, 1972), 41. This reference had already become a topical subject for newspaper discourses.
- 47.
Sun Yirang, Zhouli zhengyi, juan 72: 3008.
- 48.
Ban Gu 班固, Hanshu 漢書 (Beijing: Zhonghua, 1963) juan 24a:1123. The phrase about being informed about everything going on in the world without going out of doors also occurs in Laozi 47. By 1902 it had long become a standard quotation in Chinese newspaper editorials. With newspapers, one can be informed about the entire world without even looking out of the window.
- 49.
The name is given in phonetic transcription, magena zhada 馬格那吒達.
- 50.
I see no such rule in the Magna Charta; the rule that frank words in parliament should not be punishable was made in 1523, and was famously used by Thomas More (1478–1535) in his defence.
- 51.
Another trope of newspapers is self-depiction. Liang Qichao already used it in a programmatic article in the first issue of the Shiwubao 1, August 9, 1896 “On the Benefits of Newspapers for State Affairs,” see Vittinghoff, Die Anfänge des Journalismus, 29.
- 52.
The source here is Kang Youwei's fourth letter to the emperor in 1895. There Kang refers under point #4 to the London Times and the New York Sun as models. Sun Yirang, who had never been abroad and knew no foreign language, wrongly thought that the ling 令 (orders should be given) after Di Sen 滴森 [The Sun] in Kang Youwei's phrase “among the foreign newspapers… the best-known and most useful are the Times from England and the Sun from America, and orders should be given to the Foreign Affairs Office to translate their political and technological news for Imperial perusal” (至外國新。。。最着而有用者, 莫如英之泰晤士, 美芝滴森, 令總署派人每日譯其政藝以備乙覽) belonged to the name of the American paper. Kang Youwei 康有爲. Kang Youwei quanji 康有爲全集 [Complete works of Kang Youwei] (Shanghai: Shanghai guji, 1990), 2:180. The New York Sun was a popular paper with the largest circulation until about 1900, but not comparable to the London Times in its elite impact.
- 53.
Sun Yirang, Zhouli zhengyao, 1:44–47.
- 54.
The link between encyclopaedic works and the examination system is also addressed in the essays by Iwo Amelung and Natascha Gentz in this volume. They primarily deal with reference material for examination candidates rather than the examination essays themselves, of which an example is presented here.
- 55.
Lei Jin 雷縉, Lu Runyang 陸潤庠, comp., Zhong wai cewen daguan 中外策問大觀 [Grand prospectus of policy questions regarding Chinese and foreign matters] (Shanghai (?):Yangang shanzhuang, 1903), juan 3: 18b–19a.
- 56.
While the first items refer to Westerners, the black teeth refer to a fashion among Japanese women at the time.
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Wagner, R.G. (2014). The Formation of Encyclopaedic Commonplaces During the Late Qing: Entries on the Newspaper. In: Doleželová-Velingerová, M., Wagner, R. (eds) Chinese Encyclopaedias of New Global Knowledge (1870-1930). Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-35916-3_5
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