Abstract
From the 1810s on, a variety of new instruments in media and communications began to appear in regions surrounding southern and south-eastern China, including pamphlets, books, monthly periodicals, and commercial periodicals. Up until 1895, media and communications institutions such as printing houses, new-style schools, and translation bureaus sprang up on the coasts of China and spread inward from the edges to the center, from south to north, from the concessions to the interior. As Li Renyuan 李仁淵 has argued, however, during these eight decades, even though many Chinese people came in contact with these new modes of communication and used them to gain a new understanding of Western technology, thought, and religion, these cultural flows did not make a deep impression on the core elements of the Chinese empire. Well within the bounds of their social class, the gentry simply ignored many of these new things. A fundamental change occurred after 1895, when “Western learning,” xixue 西學, became an essential new discourse among learned people. As new-style newspapers and schools sprouted up in many parts of the country, events such as the founding of the Self-Strengthening Society, Qiangxue hui 強學會, meant that new-style publications, once marginalized, had moved from cosmopolitan cities such as Shanghai and Hong Kong to the political center in Beijing, gaining the support of important government officials and functionaries.
Li Hsiao-t’i is grateful to Milena Doleželová-Velingerová and Rudolf Wagner for carefully reading through the paper and offering many valuable suggestions.
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Notes
- 1.
See Li Renyuan 李仁淵, Wan Qing de xin shi chuanbo meiti yu zhishifenzi: yi baokan chuban wei zhongxin de taolun 晚清的新式傳播媒體與知識份子 : 以報刊出版為中心的討論 [New-style communication media and intellectuals in the late Qing: a discussion focused on newspaper and periodical publishing] (Taibei: Daoxiang, 2005), 23–28. For a more detailed discussion of this process, see Xiong Yuezhi 熊月之, Xixue dongjian yu wan Qing shehui 西學東漸與晚清社會 [The dissemination of Western learning and late Qing society] (Shanghai: Renmin, 1994), Chaps. 2 and 3.
- 2.
Li Renyuan, Wan Qing de xin shi chuanbo meiti yu zhishifenzi, 22–23.
- 3.
See Li Hsiao-t’i 李孝悌, Qingmo de xiaceng shehui qimeng yundong: 1901–1911 清末的下層社會啟蒙運動: 1901–1911 [Lower class enlightenment in the late Qing period: 1901–1911] (Shijiazhuang: Hebei jiaoyu 2001), 13–14.
- 4.
Zhang Hao 張灝, “Wan Qing sixiang fazhan shilun—jige jiben lundian tichu yu jiantao” 晚清思想發展試論──幾個基本論點的提出與檢討 [On the development of late Qing thought—a few basic points raised and discussed], Jindaishi yanjiusuo jikan no.7 (1978): 480–482.
- 5.
Li Renyuan, Wan Qing de xin shi chuanbo meiti yu zhishifenzi, 107, 113.
- 6.
Zhong Shaohua 鍾少華, Renlei zhishi de xin gongju—Zhong Ri jindai baike quanshu yanjiu 人類知識的新工具──中日近代百科全書研究 [A new tool of human knowledge: A study of early modern encyclopaedias in China and Japan] (Beijing: Beijing tushuguan, 1996).
- 7.
He Changling 賀長齡, comp., Huangchao jingshi wenbian 皇朝經世文編 [Collection of statecraft essays of our August Dynasty] (No place or publisher named, 1827, many important later supplements).
- 8.
Zhong Shaohua, Renlei zhishi de xin gongju, 98. For a full discussion of statecraft essays, see Huang Kewu 黃克武, “Jingshi wenbian yu Zhongguo jingshi sixiang yanjiu” 經世文編與中國經世思想研究 [Studies on The collection of essays on statecraft and thinking on Chinese statecraft], Jindaishi yanjiusuo tongxun no. 2 (1986): 83–86.
- 9.
Andrea Janku, “Preparing the Ground for Revolutionary Discourse: from the Statecraft Anthologies to the Periodical Press in Nineteenth-Century China,” T’oung Pao 90, nos. 1–3 (2004): 68–72, 81–91.
- 10.
For an incisive analysis of this problem, see the article by Milena Doleželová-Velingerová in this volume.
- 11.
Ma Jianzhong 馬建忠, comp., Yixue tongzuan 藝學通纂 (Shanghai: Wenlin shuju, 1902).
- 12.
Qian Xun 錢恂, Wuzhou geguo zhengzhi kao 五洲各國政治考 (Shanghai, 1901) and Qian Xun, Wuzhou geguo zhengzhi kao xubian 五洲各國政治攷續編 (Shanghai, 1901).
- 13.
See Xue Yuqin 薛玉琴, Jindai sixiang qianquzhe de beiju juese: Ma Jianzhong yanjiu 近代思想前驅者的悲劇角色 : 馬建忠研究 [The tragic role of a precursor to modern thought: A study on Ma Jianzhong ] (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue, 2006), 16–24, 214.
- 14.
Xue Yuqin, Jindai sixiang qianquzhe, 10.
- 15.
Xue Yuqin, Jindai sixiang qianquzhe, 217–218. See also Yue Feng 岳峰, “Dongxue xijian diyi ren—bei yiwang de fanyijia Chen Jitong” 東學西漸第一人──被遺忘的翻譯家陳季同 [The first person to bring Eastern learning to the West—the forgotten translator Chen Jitong], Zhongguo fanyi no. 4 (2001): 54–57. On Chen Jitong, see also Catherine Yeh, “The Life-style of Four Wenren in Late Qing Shanghai,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 57.2 (December 1997), 435–449.
- 16.
Luo Zhenyu 羅振玉, “Yixue tongzuan xu” 藝學統纂序 [Preface to the Yixue tongzuan], in Ma Jianzhong, comp., Yixue tongzuan, 1b.
- 17.
Contents are selected and organized in much the same way in He Liangdong 何良棟, comp., Taixi yixue tongkao 泰西藝學通攷 [Comprehensive examination of Western technical learning] (Shanghai: Hongbao, 1901). Another example is the Wuzhou zheng yi cuoyao 五洲政藝撮要 [Extracts of government and technical learning of the world], Xiao Deji 肖德驥, comp. (Shanghai?: Mengkong shanfang, 1902). Zhong Shaohua, who holds the only known copy in his private library, argues that the compilation followed the work of Jiang Biao 江標 and may have been used as a school textbook. Apart from information on “politics” (zheng 政), such as international law, it also includes fields that Ma Jianzhong considered to be “technical learning” (yixue 藝學), including acoustics, optics, chemistry, electrical engineering, biology, etc. See Zhong Shaohua, Renlei zhishi de xin gongju, 58.
- 18.
Xu Yuzhu 徐毓洙, “Taixi yixue tongkao xu” 泰西藝學通攷序 [Preface to the Taixi yixue tongkao], in He Liangdong, comp., Taixi yixue tongkao, 1a.
- 19.
Ma Jianzhong, Yixue tongzuan, juan 1: 8b–11b.
- 20.
Ma Jianzhong, Yixue tongzuan, juan 5: 7b.
- 21.
See Guojia Tushuguan Difangzhi Jiapu Wenxian Zhongxin 國家圖書館地方志家譜文獻中心, comp, Qingdai Minguo mingren jiapu xuankan 清代民國名人家譜選刊 [A selection of family histories of famous people from the late Qing and early Republican periods] (Beijing: Yanshan, 1996), 34; and the introduction to Qian Xun 錢恂, Wuxing Qian shi jia cheng 吳興錢氏家承 [The Family transmission of the Qian clan from Wuxing], 1–2.
- 22.
See Cai Shaoqing’s 蔡少卿preface to Xue Fucheng riji 薛福成日記 [Xue Fucheng’s diary], Jiangsu daxue xuebao 7, no. 2 (March 2005): 14–15.
- 23.
Zou Tao 鄒弢, Wanguo jin zheng kaolüe 萬國近政考略 (Shanghai: San Lu jielu, 1901).
- 24.
Ding Fenglin丁鳳麟, Xue Fucheng pingzhuan 薛福成評傳 [A critical biography of Xue Fucheng] (Nanjing: Nanjing daxue, 1998), 207.
- 25.
See Qiu Wei 邱巍, “Wuxing Qian shi jiazu yanjiu” 無興錢氏家族研究 [Research on the Qian family of Wuxing] (PhD diss., Zhejiang daxue, 2005).
- 26.
Qiu Wei, “Wuxing Qian shi,” 37–38.
- 27.
See Qiu Wei, “Wuxing Qian shi,” Chap. 4; and Qi Guohua 齊國華, “Jinguo fang yan zhu xian bian—lun Qian Shan Shili chuyang de lishi yiyi” 巾幗放眼著先鞭──論錢單士厘出洋的歷史意義 [A lady takes the lead and opens her eyes to the world—on the historical significance Qian Shan Shili’s overseas experience ], Shilin, no. 1 (1994): 34–40.
- 28.
Qian Xun 錢恂 and Dong Hongwei 董鴻禕, Riben fagui jiezi 日本法規解字 [Explanations of Japanese legal terms] (Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1907).
- 29.
Qian Xun 錢恂, Wuzhou geguo zhengzhi kao 五洲各國政治考 [Examination of the governance and laws of the different countries of the world] (Shanghai, 1901) and Qian Xun 錢恂, Wuzhou geguo zhengzhi kao xubian 五洲各國政治考續編 [Examination of the governance and laws of the different countries of the world, sequel] (Shanghai, 1901) A copy of the Wuzhou ge guo zhengzhi kao is held in the Shanghai library, while a copy of the Wuzhou ge guo zhengzhi kao xubian resides in the rare books collection of the library of the Institute of Modern History at Academia Sinica. The encyclopaedia database at the University of Heidelberg also has scanned copies of both works.
- 30.
See Chen Shuzhu 陳洙珠, “Xu” 序 [Preface], in Qian Xun 錢恂, comp., Wuzhou geguo zhengzhi kao 五洲各國政治考, 1a.
- 31.
Qian Xun, comp., Wuzhou geguo zhengzhi kao, juan 1: 5a. This and the following translations are mine.
- 32.
Qian Xun, comp., Wuzhou geguo zhengzhi kao, juan 8: 1b.
- 33.
Zhang Zhidong 張之洞, “Baoju shicai zhe bing qingdan” 保薦使才摺并清單 [List and detailed notes on recommendation of talents], quoted in Qiu Wei, “Wuxing Qian shi,” 36.
- 34.
Qian Xun, comp., Wuzhou geguo zhengzhi kao, juan 3: 2a.
- 35.
Qian Xun, comp., Wuzhou geguo zhengzhi kao, juan 3: 3b–4a.
- 36.
Chen Shoupeng 陳壽彭, trans., Zhongguo jianghai xianyao tuzhi 中國江海險要圖志 [Atlas of strategic locations of rivers and seas of China]. (1900). Guangdong: Guangya shuju, 1907. This is a translation of vol. 3 of Charles Henry Clarke Langdon, ed. The China Sea Directory, COMPRISING THE COASTS OF CHINA FROM HONG KONG TO THE KOREA; NORTH COAST OF LUZON, FORMOSA ISLAND AND STRAIT: THE BABUYAN, BASHEE, AND MEIACO SIMA GROUPS, YELLOW SEA, GULFS OF PE-CHILI AND LIAU-TUNG, ALSO THE RIVERS CANTON, WEST, MIN, YUNG,YANGTSE,YELLOW, PEI HO AND LIAU HO;AND PRATAS ISLAND (London: Hydrographic Office, 1894–963). I would like to thank Rudolf Wagner for passing this information on to me.
- 37.
Xue Shaohui 薛紹徽 gave the date for Chen Shoupeng’s 陳壽彭 journey to England as both 1885 and 1886. See Lin Yi 林怡, “Jianlun wan Qing zhuming Min ji nüzuojia Xue Shaohui,” 簡論晚清著名閩籍女作家薛紹徽 [On the famous late Qing Fujianese female writer Xue Shaohui], Dongnan xuebao Special issue 1 (2004): 283, 285. According to Li Changli’s 李長莉 account of diplomats involved in the Foreign Affairs Movement, however, the twenty-four members of the Academy’s third graduating class went to Europe in 1886. See Li Changli, Xianjuezhe de beiju──yangwu zhishifenzi yanjiu 先覺者的悲劇──洋務知識分子研究 [The tragedy of the pioneers—Research on intellectuals of the self-strengthening movement ] (Shanghai: Xuelin, 1993), 223.
- 38.
See Yue Feng, “Dongxue xijian di yi ren,” 54.
- 39.
See Li Renyuan, Wan Qing de xin shi chuanbo meiti yu zhishifenzi, 141–142.
- 40.
Chen Shoupeng, “Shuo ming” 說明 [Explanation], in Chen Shoupeng, trans., Zhongguo jianghai xianyao tuzhi, appearing before the Preface, 2a, 2b.
- 41.
Chen Jitong 陳季同, “Xu” 序 [Preface], in Chen Shoupeng, trans., Zhongguo jianghai xianyao tuzhi, 3a, 3b.
- 42.
Chen Shoupeng, Zhongguo jianghai xianyao tuzhi, juan 21: 15b–16a. Much of this translation is drawn from The China Sea Directory, 3: 625–6.
- 43.
Chen Shoupeng, Zhongguo jianghai xianyao tuzhi, juan 21: 16a.
- 44.
For these works, see also the studies by Doleželová-Velingerová and Chen Pingyuan in this volume.
- 45.
See Hao Bingjian 郝秉鍵 and Li Zhijun 李志軍, 19 shiji wanqi Zhongguo minjian zhishifenzi de sixiang—yi Shanghai Gezhi shuyuan wei li 19 世紀晚期中國民間知識分子的思想──以上海格致書院為例 [Late nineteenth century Chinese non-official intellectuals: Using the Shanghai Polytechnic Institute as an example] (Beijing: Zhongguo renmin daxue, 2005), 3–8.
- 46.
Liu Shilong 劉世龍, “Qingmo Shanghai Gezhi Shuyuan yu zaoqi de gailiang sixiang,” 清末上海格致書院與早期的改良思想 [The Shanghai Polytechnic Institute in the Late Qing and reformist thinking] Huadong Shifan Daxue xuebao (Zhexue shehuikexue ban), no. 4 (1983), 46.
- 47.
See chart in Hao and Li, 19 shiji wanqi Zhongguo minjian zhishifenzi de sixiang, 291.
- 48.
Hao and Li, 19 shiji wanqi Zhongguo minjian zhishifenzi de sixiang, 34–5, 297, 299.
- 49.
Liu Shilong, “Qingmo Shanghai Gezhi Shuyuan yu zaoqi de gailiang sixiang,” 52.
- 50.
See Feng Ziyou 馮自由, Geming yi shi 革命逸史 [Memoirs of the revolution] (Taibei: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1953), 1:102.
- 51.
Wang Rongbao’s diary, published in 1987 by Beijing University, gives very detailed information on politics, events, and major figures from 1909 to 1912. See Wang Rongbao 汪榮寶, Wang Rongbao riji 汪榮寶日記 [The diary of Wang Rongbao] (Tianjin: Tianjin guji, 1987).
- 52.
This information is gleaned from Wang Xiaoqiu 王曉秋, “Qingmo zhengtan bianhua de xiezhao—Xuantong nianjian Wang Rongbao riji pouxi,” 清末政壇變化的寫照──宣統年間《 汪榮寶日記》 剖析 [Reflecting changes in the late Qing political circles—an analysis of the Xuantong era Diary of Wang Rongbao], Lishi yanjiu, no. 1 (1989): 73. For information on the schools Wang attended in Japan, see Shin Kokui (= Shen Guowei) 沈國威, Shinjiga to sono go-i: kenkyû, sakuin, eiinbon tsuki 新爾雅とその語彙 : 研究,索引,影印本付 [The New Erya and its terms: A study and index with a photographic reproduction attached] (Tokyo: Hakuteisha, 1995), 4–5.
- 53.
Wang and Ye, Xin erya, 10–11.
- 54.
For a discussion of Ding’s translation work, see Niu Yahua 牛亞華 and Feng Lisheng 馮立昇, “Ding Fubao yu jindai Zhong-Ri yixue jiaoliu,” 丁福保與近代中日醫學交流 [Ding Fubao and modern Sino-Japanese medical information exchange], Zhongguo keji shiliao 25, no. 4 (2004): 315–329.
- 55.
See Gao Yuqiu 高毓秋, “Ding Fubao nianbiao” 丁福保年表 [Chronology of Ding Fubao], Zhonghua yishi zazhi 33, no. 3 (2003): 184–188.
- 56.
Li Renyuan, Wan Qing de xin shi chuanbo meiti yu zhishifenzi, 324–344.
- 57.
See Wu Yinpei 吳蔭培, preface to Zou Tao 鄒弢, Sanjielu ji 三借廬集 [Collection from the thrice-loaned hut] (Changshu: Kaiwen she yinshuasuo), 1:5.
- 58.
Liangxisixiangjiuwei 梁溪司香旧尉 [= Zou Tao], Haishang chen tian ying (Shanghai: Shanghai guji, 1990).
- 59.
Zou Tao, “Liushi fang yan,” 六十放言 [Frank words at sixty] in Zou Tao, Sanjielu ji, 107b.
- 60.
See Xiao Xiangkai 蕭相愷, “Zou Tao” 鄒弢, in Zhongguo wenyan xiaoshuojia pingzhuan 中國文言小說家評傳 [Critical biographies of authors of Chinese classical fiction] (Zhengzhou: Zhengzhou guji, 2004), 830; and Huang Yi 黃毅, “Xu” 序 [Preface], in Zou Tao, Haishang chen tian ying.
- 61.
See Bao Tianxiao 包天笑, “Chuanyinglou huiyilu” 釧影樓回憶錄 [Memoirs from Chuanying loft], in Jindai Zhongguo shiliao congkan xuji 近代中國史料叢刊續輯 (Taibei: Wenhai, 1974), 48:237–247.
- 62.
Zou Tao, “Fanli” 凡例 [Editorial principles], in Zou Tao, comp. Wanguo jin zheng kaolüe.
- 63.
Zou Tao comp., Wanguo jin zheng kaolüe, 11a.
- 64.
Rudolf Wagner, “A Preliminary List of Early Modern Chinese Encyclopaedias, 1894–1911” (unpublished paper). I am grateful to Rudolf Wagner for providing me with this paper.
- 65.
Xu Jiyu, Yinghuan zhilüe (Shanghai: Shanghai shuju, 2001).
- 66.
For a discussion of these institutions and publications, see Natascha Vittinghoff, “Social Actors in the Field of New Learning in Nineteenth Century China,” in Mapping Meanings: The Field of New Learning in Late Qing China, ed. Michael Lackner and Natascha Vittinghoff (Brill: Leiden, 2004), 75–118.
- 67.
Xiguo jin shi huibian 西國近事匯編 [Compendium of recent Western affairs] (Shanghai: Shanghai jiqi zhizaoju, 1873).
- 68.
Gezhi huibian, parallel English title The Chinese Scientific Magazine, was published between 1876 and 1892. According to Vittinghoff, during its operation from 1868 to 1912, the Jiangnan Arsenal had ten instructors, including John Fryer, and 20 translators, including Hua Hengfang 華蘅芳. The Translation Bureau published the Compendium of Recent Western Affairs, which only published translations of world news, especially from the London Times. The Compendium was a major source of world news for China’s elites, and counted Kang Youwei 康有為 and Liang Qichao 梁啟超 among its readers. The Shanghai Polytechnic Institution and Reading Room was modeled after the London Polytechnic. The Polytechnic, which had classrooms, a library, and an exhibition hall and published The Chinese Scientific Magazine, was an important social organization for those interested in Western learning. Vittinghoff, “Social Actors,” 93–96.
- 69.
Bin Chun 斌椿, Chengcha biji 乘槎筆記 [Jottings on travels by raft], in Wang Xiqi, comp. Xiaofanghuzhai yudi congchao, (Shanghai: Zhuyi tang, 1897).
- 70.
Zhang Deyi 張德彝, Hanghai shu qi 航海述奇 [Maritime adventures] (China, 1867). Id., Ou Mei huanyou ji: zai shuqi 歐美环游记 : 再述奇 [Travels in Europe and America: More adventures] (Changsha: Hunan renmin, 1881).
- 71.
Yuan Zuzhi, Tan ying lu (Shanghai: Tongwen shuju, 1884).
- 72.
Wang Tao, Manyou suilu, in Wang Xiqi, comp. Xiaofanghuzhai yudi congchao.
- 73.
Vittinghoff, “Social Actors in the Field of New Learning in Nineteenth Century China,” 104.
References
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Hsiao-t’i, L. (2014). Late Qing Encyclopaedias: Establishing a New Enterprise. In: Doleželová-Velingerová, M., Wagner, R. (eds) Chinese Encyclopaedias of New Global Knowledge (1870-1930). Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-35916-3_2
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