Skip to main content

Quantification of Gingival, Periodontal, and Oral Hygiene Status in Periodontal Research Environment

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Understanding Periodontal Research

Abstract

In order to assess prevalence and severity of gingival and/or periodontal lesions, a variety of index systems have been developed. Index systems were first applied in epidemiologic studies. However, the application of some systems became more and more accepted in clinical practice as a part of the individual patient’s documentation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abrahamsson I, Soldini C. Probe penetration in periodontal and peri-implant tissues. An experimental study in the beagle dog. Clin Oral Implants Res. 2006;17:601–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adams RA, Nystrom GP. A periodontitis severity index. J Periodontol. 1986;57:176–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Addy M, Willis L, Moran J. Effect of toothpaste rinses compared with chlorhexidine on plaque formation during a 4-day period. J Clin Periodontol. 1983;10:89–99.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Addy M, Renton-Harper P, Newcombe R. Plaque regrowth studies: discriminatory power of plaque index compared to plaque area. J Clin Periodontol. 1999;26:110–2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ainamo J, Bay I. Problems and proposals for recording gingivitis and plaque. Int Dent J. 1975;25:229–35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ainamo J, Barmes D, Beagrie G, Cutress T, Martin J, Sardo-Infirri J. Development of the World Health Organization (WHO) community periodontal index of treatment needs (CPITN). Int Dent J. 1982;32:281–91.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Akhter R, Hannan MA, Okhubo R, Morita M. Relationship between stress factor and periodontal disease in a rural area population in Japan. Eur J Med Res. 2005;10:352–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Albandar JM. Periodontal diseases in North America. Periodontol 2000. 2002;29:31–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Albandar JM. Underestimation of periodontitis in NHANES surveys. J Periodontol. 2011;82:337–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Albandar JM, Brunelle JA, Kingman A. Destructive periodontal disease in adults 30 years of age and older in the United States, 1988–1994. J Periodontol. 1999;70:13–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous. Parameter on chronic periodontitis with slight to moderate loss of periodontal support. American Academy of Peridontology. J Periodontol. 2000;71(5 Suppl):853–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antunes JL, Peres MA, Frias AC, Crosato EM, Biazevic MG. Gingival health of adolescents and the utilization of dental services, state of São Paulo, Brazil. Rev Saude Publica. 2008;42:191–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Armitage GC, Jeffcoat MK, Chadwick DE, Taggart Jr EJ, Numabe Y, Landis JR, Weaver SL, Sharp TJ. Longitudinal evaluation of elastase as a marker for the progression of periodontitis. J Periodontol. 1994;65:120–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arweiler NB, Donos N, Netuschil L, Reich E, Sculean A. Clinical and antibacterial effect of tea tree oil – a pilot study. Clin Oral Investig. 2000;4:70–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arweiler NB, Netuschil L, Reich E. Alcohol-free mouthrinse solutions to reduce supragingival plaque regrowth and vitality. A controlled clinical study. J Clin Periodontol. 2001a;28:168–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arweiler NB, Reich E, Brecx M, Dörner M, Netuschil L. Influence of ethanol on the antibacterial and anti-plaque efficacy of an amine fluoride/stannous fluoride mouthrinse solution. J de Parodontologie de’Implantologie orale. 2001b;20:331–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arweiler NB, Auschill TM, Reich E, Netuschil L. Substantivity of toothpaste slurries and their effect on reestablishment of the dental biofilm. J Clin Periodontol. 2002a;29:615–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arweiler NB, Henning G, Reich E, Netuschil L. Effect of an amine-fluoride-triclosan mouthrinse on plaque regrowth and biofilm vitality. J Clin Periodontol. 2002b;29:358–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arweiler NB, Auschill TM, Baguley N, Netuschil L, Sculean A. Efficacy of an amine fluoride-triclosan mouthrinse as compared to the individual active ingredients. J Clin Periodontol. 2003;30:192–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arweiler NB, Boehnke N, Sculean A, Hellwig E, Auschill TM. Differences in efficacy of two commercial 0.2% chlorhexidine mouthrinse solutions: a 4-day plaque re-growth study. J Clin Periodontol. 2006;33:334–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arweiler NB, Lenz R, Sculean A, Al-Ahmad A, Hellwig E, Auschill TM. Effect of food preservatives on in situ biofilm formation. Clin Oral Investig. 2008;12:203–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Auschill TM, Arweiler NB, Netuschil L, Brecx M, Reich E, Sculean A. Spatial distribution of vital and dead microorganisms in dental biofilms. Arch Oral Biol. 2001;46:471–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Auschill TM, Hein N, Hellwig E, Follo M, Sculean A, Arweiler NB. Effect of two antimicrobial agents on early in situ biofilm formation. J Clin Periodontol. 2005;32:147–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baelum V, Papapanou PN. CPITN and the epidemiology of periodontal disease. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1996;24:367–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baelum V, Fejerskov O, Manji F. Periodontal diseases in adult Kenyans. J Clin Periodontol. 1988;15:445–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baelum V, Manji F, Wanzala P, Fejerskov O. Relationship between CPITN and periodontal attachment loss findings in an adult population. J Clin Periodontol. 1995;22:146–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barendregt DS, Timmerman MF, Van der Velden U, Van der Weijden GA. Comparison of the bleeding on marginal probing index and the Eastman interdental bleeding index as indicators of gingivitis. J Clin Periodontol. 2002;29:195–200.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett ML. Suitability of gingival indices for use in therapeutic trials. Is bleeding a sine qua non? J Clin Periodontol. 1996;23:582–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett ML, Ciancio SG, Mather ML. The modified papillary bleeding index: comparison with gingival index during the resolution of gingivitis. J Prev Dent. 1980;6:135–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bassani DG, da Silva CM, Oppermann RV. Validity of the “Community Periodontal Index of Treatment Needs” (CPITN) for population periodontitis screening. Cad Saude Publica. 2006;22:277–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck JD, Loe H. Epidemiological principles in studying periodontal diseases. Periodontol 2000. 1993;2:34–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benamghar L, Penaud J, Kaminsky P, Abt F, Martin J. Comparison of gingival index and sulcus bleeding index as indicators of periodontal status. Bull World Health Organ. 1982;60:147–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benigeri M, Brodeur JM, Payette M, Charbonneau A, Ismail AI. Community periodontal index of treatment needs and prevalence of periodontal conditions. J Clin Periodontol. 2000;27:308–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benson BJ, Henyon G, Grossman E, Mankodi S, Sharma NC. Development and verification of the proximal/marginal plaque index. J Clin Dent. 1993;4:14–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bessa Rebelo MA, Adriana Correâ de Queiroz A. Gingival indices: state of art. In: Panagakos FS, Davies RM, editors. Gingival diseases – their aetiology, prevention and treatment. InTech; 2011. p. 41–54. http://www.intechopen.com/profiles/65936/maria-augusta-rebelo

  • Birkeland JM, Jorkjend L. The influence of examination on the assessment of the intra-examiner error by using the plaque and gingival index systems. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1975;3:214–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blieden TM, Caton JG, Proskin HM, Stein SH, Wagener CJ. Examiner reliability for an invasive gingival bleeding index. J Clin Periodontol. 1992;19:262–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Borges-Yáñez SA, Maupomé G, Jiménez-García G. Validity and reliability of partial examination to assess severe periodontitis. J Clin Periodontol. 2004;31:112–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Borrell LN, Beck JD, Heiss G. Socioeconomic disadvantage and periodontal disease: the Dental Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study. Am J Public Health. 2006;96:332–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brecx M, Netuschil L, Reichert B, Schreil G. Efficacy of Listerine, Meridol and chlorhexidine mouthrinses on plaque, gingivitis and plaque bacteria vitality. J Clin Periodontol. 1990;17:292–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brecx M, MacDonald LL, Legary K, Cheang M, Forgay MGE. Long-term effects of Meridol1 and chlorhexidine mouthrinses on plaque, gingivitis, staining, and bacterial vitality. J Dent Res. 1993;72:1194–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brothwell D, Ghiabi E. Periodontal health status of the Sandy Bay First Nation in Manitoba, Canada. Int J Circumpolar Health. 2009;68:23–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Butler A, Targett D, Bosma ML. Maintenance of gingival health – a measure based on clinical indices. Int Dent J. 2011;61 Suppl 3:28–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Camgoz M, Gurgan CA, Kajiwara K, Kawamura M. Dental students’ ability to assess gingival health status with DAAGS software. J Dent Educ. 2008;72:59–66.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Camgoz M, Gurgan CA, Akkaya M. Turkish dental students’ and dentists’ ability to assess gingival health status with DAAGS software. J Dent Educ. 2011;75:1127–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlos JP, Wolfe MD, Kingman A. The extent and severity index: a simple method for use in epidemiologic studies of periodontal disease. J Clin Periodontol. 1986;13:500–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carter HG, Barnes GP. The gingival bleeding index. J Periodontol. 1974;45:801–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carter K, Landini G, Walmsley AD. Automated quantification of dental plaque accumulation using digital imaging. J Dent. 2004;32:623–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caton JG, Polson AM. The interdental bleeding index: a simplified procedure for monitoring gingival health. Compend Contin Educ Dent. 1985;6(88):90–2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caton J, Bouwsma O, Polson A, Espeland M. Effects of personal oral hygiene and subgingival scaling on bleeding interdental gingiva. J Periodontol. 1989;60:84–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chaves ES, Wood RC, Jones AA, Newbold DA, Manwell MA, Kornman KS. Relationship of “bleeding on probing” and “gingival index bleeding” as clinical parameters of gingival inflammation. J Clin Periodontol. 1993;20:139–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chawla TN. Prevalence of periodontal disease in urban Lucknow (India) using Ramfjord’s Technique. J All India Dent Assoc. 1963;35:151–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ciancio SG. Current status of indices of gingivitis. J Clin Periodontol. 1986;13(375–8):381–2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Claydon N, Yates R, Labello R, Hall C, Armstrong R, Addy M. A methodology using subjective and objective measures to compare plaque inhibition by toothpastes. J Clin Periodontol. 2004;31:1106–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clements KM, Bollen AM, Huang G, King G, Hujoel P, Ma T. Activation time and material stiffness of sequential removable orthodontic appliances. Part 2: dental improvements. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 2003;124:502–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cugini M, Thompson M, Warren PR. Correlations between two plaque indices in assessment of toothbrush effectiveness. J Contemp Dent Pract. 2006;7(5):1–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cutress TW, Ainamo J, Sardo-Infirri J. The community periodontal index of treatment needs (CPITN) procedure for population groups and individuals. Int Dent J. 1987;37:222–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dababneh RH, Khouri AT, Smith RG, Addy M. A new method of plaque scoring: a laboratory comparison with other plaque indices. J Clin Periodontol. 2002a;29:832–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dababneh RH, Khouri AT, Smith RG, Addy M. Correlation and examiner agreement between a new method of plaque scoring and a popular established plaque index, modelled in vitro. J Clin Periodontol. 2002b;29:1107–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Despeignes JR. Variation in the area of intraperiodontal surfaces of human tooth roots, in relation to their depth. Thesis Paris 1970. J Periodontol. 1979;50:630–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dhingra K, Vandana KL. Indices for measuring periodontitis: a literature review. Int Dent J. 2011;61:76–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunning JM, Leach LB. Gingival-bone count: a method for epidemiological study of periodontal disease. J Dent Res. 1960;39:506–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dye BA, Barker LK, Selwitz RH, Lewis BG, Wu T, Fryar CD, Ostchega Y, Beltran ED, Ley E. Overview and quality assurance for the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) oral health component, 1999–2002. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2007;35:140–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dye BA, Thornton-Evans G. A brief history of national surveillance efforts for periodontal disease in the United States. J Periodontol. 2007;78:1373–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dye BA, Hirsch R, Brody DJ. The relationship between blood lead levels and periodontal bone loss in the United States, 1988–1994. Environ Health Perspect. 2002a;110:997–1002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dye BA, Kruszon-Moran D, McQuillan G. The relationship between periodontal disease attributes and Helicobacter pylori infection among adults in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2002b;92:1809–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eaton KA, Woodman AJ. Evaluation of simple periodontal screening technique currently used in UK armed forces. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1989;17:190–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Egelberg J. Oral hygiene methods the scientific way (synopses of clinical studies) 1st ed. Malmo: Odonto Science Sweden; 1999. p. 271–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eickholz P, Hausmann E. Accuracy of radiographic assessment of interproximal bone loss in intrabony defects using linear measurements. Eur J Oral Sci. 2000;108:70–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ekanayaka ANI, Sheiham A. Assessing the periodontal treatment needs of a population. J Clin Periodontol. 1979;6:150–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elliott JR, Bowers GM, Clemmer BA, Rovelstad GH. Evaluation of an oral physiotherapy center in the reduction of bacterial plaque and periodontal disease. J Periodontol. 1972;43:221–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis JS, Seymour RA, Robertson P, Butler TJ, Thomason JM. Photographic scoring of gingival overgrowth. J Clin Periodontol. 2001;28:81–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Engelberger T, Hefti A, Kallenberger A, Rateitschak KH. Correlations among papilla bleeding index, other clinical indices and histologically determined inflammation of gingival papilla. J Clin Periodontol. 1983;10:579–89.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ennerver J, Sturzenberger OP, Radike AW. The calculus surface index method for scoring clinical calculus studies. J Periodontol. 1961;32:54–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischman SL. Clinical index systems used to assess the efficacy of mouthrinses on plaque and gingivitis. J Clin Periodontol. 1988;15:506–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fischman S, Cancro LP, Pretara-Spanedda P, Jacobs D. Distal mesial plaque index. A technique for assessing dental plaque about the gingiva. Dent Hyg (Chic). 1987;61:404–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galgut P. A comparison of different indices used in the clinical assessment of plaque and gingival bleeding. Clin Oral Investig. 1999;3:96–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garg S, Kapoor KK. The quantitative gingival bleeding index. J Indian Dent Assoc. 1985;57:112–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gehlen I, Netuschil L, Georg T, Reich E, Berg R, Katsaros C. The influence of a 0.2% chlorhexidine mouthrinse on plaque regrowth in orthodontic patients. J Orofac Orthop. 2000;61:138–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gera I. Periodontal treatment needs in Central and Eastern Europe. J Int Acad Periodontol. 2000;2:120–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gesser HC, Peres MA, Marcenes W. Condições gengivais e periodontais associadas a fatores socioeconômicos. Rev Saude Publica. 2001;35:289–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greene JC, Vermillion JR. The simplified oral hygiene index. J Am Dent Assoc. 1964;68:7–29.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman FD, Fedi PF. Navy periodontal screening examination. J Am Soc Prev Dent. 1974;3: 41–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grytten J, Holst D, Gjermo P. Validity of CPITN’s hierarchical scoring method for describing the prevalence of periodontal conditions. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1989;17:300–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hancock EB, Wirthlin Jr MR. An evaluation of the navy periodontal screening examination. J Periodontol. 1977;48:63–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hazen SP. Indices for the measurement of gingival inflammation in clinical studies of oral hygiene and periodontal disease. J Periodontal Res Suppl. 1974;14:61–77.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Helldén L, Camosci D, Hock J, Tinanoff N. Clinical study to compare the effect of stannous fluoride and chlorhexidine mouthrinses on plaque formation. J Clin Periodontol. 1981;8:12–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hofer D, Sahrmann P, Attin T, Schmidlin PR. Comparison of marginal bleeding using a periodontal probe or an interdental brush as indicators of gingivitis. Int J Dent Hyg. 2011;9:211–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holmgren CJ, Corbet EF. Relationship between periodontal parameters and CPITN scores. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1990;18:322–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hujoel PP. A meta-analysis of normal ranges for root surface areas of the permanent dentition. J Clin Periodontol. 1994;21:225–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hujoel PP, White BA, García RI, Listgarten MA. The dentogingival epithelial surface area revisited. J Periodontal Res. 2001;36:48–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hunt RJ, Fann SJ. Effect of examining half the teeth in a partial periodontal recording of older adults. J Dent Res. 1991;70:1380–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Janssen PTM, Faber JAJ, van Palenstein Helderman WH. Reproducibility of bleeding tendency measurements and the reproducibility of mouth bleeding scores for the individual patient. J Periodontal Res. 1986;21:653–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins WMM, Papapanou PN. Epidemiology of periodontal disease in children and adolescents. Periodontol 2000. 2001;26:16–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jentsch H, Hombach A, Beetke E, Jonas L. Quantitative transmission electron microscopic study of dental plaque – an in vivo study with different mouthrinses. Ultrastruct Pathol. 2002;26:309–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jovanovski V, Lynch E. Analysis of the morphology of oral structures from 3-D co-ordinate data. Monogr Oral Sci. 2000;17:73–129.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kato K, Tamura K, Nakagaki H. Quantitative evaluation of the oral biofilm-removing capacity of a dental water jet using an electron-probe microanalyzer. Arch Oral Biol. 2012;57(1):30–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kawamura M, Fukuda S, Inoue C, Sasahara H, Iwamoto Y. The validity and reproducibility of an oral rating index as a measurement of gingival health care and oral hygiene level in adults. J Clin Periodontol. 2000;27:411–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klages U, Weber AG, Wehrbein H. Approximal plaque and gingival sulcus bleeding in routine dental care patients: relations to life stress, somatization and depression. J Clin Periodontol. 2005;32:575–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klukowska M, Bader A, Erbe C, Bellamy P, White DJ, Anastasia MK, Wehrbein H. Plaque levels of patients with fixed orthodontic appliances measured by digital plaque image analysis. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 2011;139:e463–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • König J, Storcks V, Kocher T, Bössmann K, Plagmann H-C. Antiplaque effect of tempered 0.2% chlorhexidine rinse: an in vivo study. J Clin Periodontol. 2002;29:207–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kraus BS, Jordan RE, Abrams L. Dental anatomy and occlusion. A study of the masticatory system. Baltimore/London: Williams & Wilkins; 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landry RG, Jean M. Periodontal screening and recording (PSR) index: precursors, utility and limitations in a clinical setting. Int Dent J. 2002;52:35–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lang NP. Commonly used indices to assess oral hygiene and gingival and periodontal health and disease. In: Lang NP, editor. Proceedings of the European workshop on mechanical plaque control – status of the art and science of dental plaque control: castle of Münchenwiler, Berne, 9–12 May 1998. Chicago/Berlin/London/Tokyo/Paris/Barcelona: Quintessence Publ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lange DE. Accessory treatment in systemic periodontitis management. Zahnarztl Welt. 1975;8:366–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavigne SE. Periodontal assessment in Hodges KO.: concepts in nonsurgical periodontal therapy. Albany/Bonn/Boston: Delmar Publishers; 1998. p. 53–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leroy R, Eaton KA, Savage A. Methodological issues in epidemiological studies of periodontitis--how can it be improved? BMC Oral Health. 2010;10:8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis JM, Morgan MV, Wright FA. The validity of the CPITN scoring and presentation method for measuring periodontal conditions. J Clin Periodontol. 1994;21:1–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lobene RR, Weatherford T, Ross NM, Lamm RA, Menaker L. A modified gingival index for use in clinical trials. Clin Prev Dent. 1986;8:3–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Löe H. The gingival index, the plaque index and the retention index systems. J Periodontol. 1967;38:38–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loesche WJ. Clinical and microbiological aspects of chemotherapeutic agents used according to the specific plaque hypothesis. J Dent Res. 1979;58:2404–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lorenz K, Bruhn G, Heumann C, Hoffmann T, Netuschil L. How to select study designs and parameters to investigate the effect of mouthrinses? Part II: comparisons between the parameters used. J Physiol Pharmacol. 2009a;60 Suppl 8:85–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lorenz K, Bruhn G, Netuschil L, Heumann C, Hoffmann T. How to select study designs and parameters to investigate the effect of mouthrinses? Part I: rationale and background. J Physiol Pharmacol. 2009b;60 Suppl 8:77–83.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lorenz K, Mayer D, Bruhn G, Noack B, Brecx M, Heumann C, Toutenburg H, Netuschil L, Nagl M, Gottardi W, Hoffmann T. Effect of N-chlorotaurine mouth rinses on plaque regrowth and plaque vitality. Clin Oral Investig. 2009c;13:9–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mandel ID, Pihlstrom BL, Ramfjord S, et al. Periodontology and occlusion at Michigan. J Dent Res. 1997;76:1716–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mariath AA, Bressani AE, Haas AN, Araujo FB, Rösing CK. Professional flossing as a diagnostic method for gingivitis in the primary dentition. Braz Oral Res. 2008;22:316–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Massler M. The P-M-A index for the assessment of gingivitis. J Periodontol. 1967;38:592–601.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matthijs S, Sabzevar MM, Adriaens PA. Intra-examiner reproducibility of 4 dental plaque indices. J Clin Periodontol. 2001;28:250–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McBain AJ, Bartolo RG, Catrenich CE, Charbonneau D, Ledder RG, Gilbert P. Effects of a chlorhexidine gluconate-containing mouthwash on the vitality and antimicrobial susceptibility of in vitro oral bacterial ecosystems. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2003;69:4770–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCracken GI, Preshaw PM, Steen IN, Swan M, deJager M, Heasman PA. Measuring plaque in clinical trials: index or weight? J Clin Periodontol. 2006;33:172–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moustakis VS, Laine ML, Koumakis L, et al. Modeling genetic susceptibility: a case study in periodontitis. In: Combi C, Tucker A, editors. Proceedings of IDAMAP-2007: intelligent data analysis in biomedicine and pharmacology. Amsterdam: Artificial Intelligence in Medicine (AIME) Workshop; 2007. p. 59–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mühlemann HR. Psychological and chemical mediators of gingival health. J Prev Dent. 1977;4:6–17.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mühlemann HR, Son S. Gingival sulcus bleeding-a leading symptom in initial gingivitis. Helv Odontol Acta. 1971;15:107–13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Müller HP, Barrieshi-Nusair KM. Gingival bleeding on repeat probing after different time intervals in plaque-induced gingivitis. Clin Oral Investig. 2005;9:278–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Müller HP, Heinecke A. The influence of gingival dimensions on bleeding upon probing in young adults with plaque-induced gingivitis. Clin Oral Investig. 2002;6:69–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nasi JH. Background to, and implementation of, the Periodontal Screening and Recording (PSR) procedure in the USA. Int Dent J 1994 44: 585–588.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Institute of Dental Research. U.S. Public Health Service, Oral Health of United States Adults; NationalFindings. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Dental Research; 1987. NIH publication number 87-2868.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nesse W, Abbas F, van der Ploeg I, Spijkervet FKL, Dijkstra PU, Vissink A. Periodontal inflamed surface area: quantifying inflammatory burden. J Clin Periodontol. 2008;35:668–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nesse W, Linde A, Abbas F, Spijkervet FKL, Dijkstra PU, de Brabander EC, Gerstenbluth I, Vissink A. Dose–response relationship between periodontal inflamed surface area and HbA1c in type 2 diabetics. J Clin Periodontol. 2009;36:295–300.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Netuschil L, Reich E, Brecx M. Direct measurement of the bactericidal effect of chlorhexidine on human dental plaque. J Clin Periodontol. 1989;16:484–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Netuschil L, Weiger R, Preisler R, Brecx M. Plaque bacteria counts and vitality during chlorhexidine, meridol and listerine mouthrinses. Eur J Oral Sci. 1995;103:355–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Netuschil L, von Ohle C, Brecx M. Die vitalfluoreszenz­technik in der plaqueforschung. Parodontologie. 1996;7:293–305.

    Google Scholar 

  • Netuschil L, Reich E, Unteregger G, Sculean A, Brecx M. A pilot study of confocal laser scanning microscopy for the assessment of undisturbed dental plaque vitality and topography. Arch Oral Biol. 1998;43:277–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newbrun E. Indices to measure gingival bleeding. J Periodontol. 1996;67:555–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newby EE, Bordas A, Kleber C, Milleman J, Milleman K, Keogh R, Murphy S, Butler A, Bosma ML. Quantification of gingival contour and volume from digital impressions as a novel method for assessing gingival health. Int Dent J. 2011;61 Suppl 3:4–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nowicki D, Vogel R, Melcer S, Deasy M. The gingival bleeding time index. J Periodontol. 1981;52:260–2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Leary T. The periodontal screening examination. J Periodontol. 1967;38(Suppl):617–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Leary TJ, Drake RB, Naylor JE. The plaque control record. J Periodontol. 1972;43:38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Okada M, Kuwahara S, Kozai K, Kawamura M, Nagasaka N. The efficacy of an oral rating index for children for screening gingival health and oral hygiene status. Pediatr Dent J. 1999;9:91–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Okada M, Kuwahara S, Kaihara Y, Ishidori H, Kawamura M, Miura K, Nagasaka N. Relationship between gingival health and dental caries in children aged 7–12 years. J Oral Sci. 2000;42:151–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Okada M, Kawamura M, Kaihara Y, Matsuzaki Y, Kuwahara S, Ishidori H, Miura K. Influence of parents’ oral health behaviour on oral health status of their school children: an exploratory study employing a causal modelling technique. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2002;12:101–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Okada M, Kawamura M, Hayashi Y, Takase N, Kozai K. Simultaneous interrelationship between the oral health behavior and oral health status of mothers and their children. J Oral Sci. 2008;50:447–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Persson RE, Kiyak AH, Wyatt CCI, MacEntee M, Persson GR. Smoking, a weak predictor of periodontitis in older adults. J Clin Periodontol. 2005;32:512–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petersen PE, Ogawa H. Strengthening the prevention of periodontal disease: the WHO approach. J Periodontol. 2005;76:2187–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pretty IA, Edgar WM, Higham SM. A study to assess the efficacy of a new detergent free, whitening dentifrice in vivo using QLF planimetric analysis. Br Dent J. 2004;197:561–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pretty IA, Edgar WM, Smith PW, Higham SM. Quantification of dental plaque in the research environment. J Dent. 2005;33:193–207.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quigley GA, Hein JW. Comparative cleansing efficiency of manual and power brushing. J Am Dent Assoc. 1962;65:26–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quirynen M, van Steenberghe D. Is early plaque growth rate constant with time? J Clin Periodontol. 1989;16:278–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quirynen M, Dekeyser C, van Steenberghe D. The influence of gingival inflammation, tooth type, and timing on the rate of plaque formation. J Periodontol. 1991;62:219–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramfjord SP. Indices for prevalence and incidence of periodontal disease. J Periodontol. 1959;30:51–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramfjord SP. The periodontal status of boys 11 to 17 years old in Bombay, India. J Periodontol. 1961;32:237–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Renton-Harper P, Claydon N, Warren P, Newcombe RG, Addy M. Conversion of plaque-area measurements to plaque index scores. An assessment of variation and discriminatory power. J Clin Periodontol. 1999;26:429–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosin M, Splieth C, Hesser M, et al. Quantification of gingival edema using a new 3-D laser scanning method. J Clin Periodontol. 2002;29:240–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rundegren J, Hvid EB, Johannson M, Ǻström M. Effect of 4 days of mouth rinsing with delmopinol or chlorhexidine on the vitality of plaque bacteria. J Clin Periodontol. 1992;19:322–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell AL. A system of classification and scoring for prevalence surveys of periodontal disease. J Dent Res. 1956;35:350–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rustogi KN, Curtis JP, Volpe AR, Kemp JH, McCool JJ, Korn LR. Refinement of the modified navy plaque index to increase plaque scoring efficiency in gumline and interproximal tooth areas. J Clin Dent. 1992;3(Suppl C):C9–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sagel PA, Lapujade PG, Miller JM, Sunberg RJ. Objective quantification of plaque using digital image analysis. Monogr Oral Sci. 2000;17:130–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandler HC, Stahl SS. Measurement of periodontal ­disease prevalence. J Am Dent Assoc. 1959;58:93–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saxer UP, Mühlemann HR. Motivation and education [Article in German]. SSO Schweiz Monatsschr Zahnheilkd. 1975;85:905–19.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saxton CA, van der Ouderaa FJ. The effect of a dentifrice containing zinc citrate and Triclosan on developing gingivitis. J Periodontal Res. 1989;24:75–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schick RA, Ash MM. Evaluation of the vertical method of toothbrushing. J Periodontol 1961;32:346–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sculean A, Auschill TM, Donos N, Brecx M, Arweiler NB. Effect of an enamel matrix protein derivative (EmdogainA) on ex vivo dental plaque vitality. J Clin Periodontol. 2001;28:1074–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seymour RA, Smith DG, Turnbull DN. The effects of phenytoin and sodium valproate on the periodontal health of adult epileptic patients. J Clin Periodontol. 1985;12(6):413–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaloub A, Addy M. Evaluation of accuracy and variability of scoring-area-based plaque indices. A laboratory model. J Clin Periodontol. 2000;27:16–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw L, Murray JJ. A new index for measuring extrinsic stain in clinical trials. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1977;5:116–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schour L, Massler M. Survey of gingival disease using the PMA index. J Dent Res. 1948;27:733.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silness J, Löe H. Periodontal disease in pregnancy. 1. Prevalence and severity. Acta Odontol Scand. 1963;21:533–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silness J, Löe H. Periodontal disease in pregnancy. 2. Correlation between oral hygiene and periodontal condition. Acta Odontol Scand. 1964;22:121–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith RN, Brook AH, Elcock C. The quantification of dental plaque using an image analysis system: ­reliability and validation. J Clin Periodontol. 2001;28:1158–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith RN, Rawlinson A, Lath D, Elcock C, Walsh TF, Brook AH. Quantification of dental plaque on lingual tooth surfaces using image analysis: reliability and validation. J Clin Periodontol. 2004;31:569–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith RN, Rawlinson A, Lath DL, Brook AH. A digital SLR or intra-oral camera: preference for acquisition within an image analysis system for measurement of disclosed dental plaque area within clinical trials. J Periodontal Res. 2006;41:55–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith RN, Lath DL, Rawlinson A, et al. Gingival inflammation assessment by image analysis: measurement and validation. Int J Dent Hyg. 2008;6:137–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Söder P, Jin LJ, Söder B. Computerized planimetric method for clinical plaque measurement. Scand J Dent Res. 1993;101:21–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Söder B, Jin LJ, Lundquist G, Söder PO. A longitudinal investigation of the individual consistency of plaque levels in adults. Acta Odontol Scand. 1995;53:72–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Söderling E, Mäkinen KK, Chen CY, Pape Jr HR, Loesche W, Mäkinen PL. Effect of sorbitol, xylitol, and xylitol/sorbitol chewing gums on dental plaque. Caries Res. 1989;23:378–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Staudt CB, Kinzel S, Hassfeld S, Stein W, Staehle HJ, Dörfer CE. Computer-based intraoral image analysis of the clinical plaque removing capacity of 3 manual toothbrushes. J Clin Periodontol. 2001;28:746–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suomi JD. Periodontal disease and oral hygiene in an institutionalized population: report of an epidemiological study. J Periodontol. 1969;40:5–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suomi JD, Barbano JP. Patterns of gingivitis. J Periodontol. 1968;39:71–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi Y, Kamijyo H, Kawanishi S, Takaesu Y. Presence and absence of bleeding in association with calculus in segments given code 2 in the community periodontal index of treatment needs (CPITN). Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1988;16:109–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tezal M, Grossi SG, Ho AW, Genco RJ. Alcohol consumption and periodontal disease the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J Clin Periodontol. 2004;31:484–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tinanoff N, Hock J, Camosci D, Helldén L. Effect of stannous fluoride mouthrinse on dental plaque formation. J Clin Periodontol. 1980;7:232–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turesky S, Gilmore ND, Glickman I. Reduced plaque formation by the chloromethyl analogue of victamine C. J Periodontol. 1970;41:41–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Velden U. Probing force and the relationship of the probe tip to the periodontal tissues. J Clin Periodontol. 1979;6:106–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Velden U. Influence of probing force on the reproducibility of bleeding tendency measurements. J Clin Periodontol. 1980;7:421–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Weijden GA, Timmerman MF, Saxton CA, Russell JI, Huntington E, Van der Velden U. Intra-/inter-examiner reproducibility study of gingival bleeding. J Periodontal Res. 1994a;29:236–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Weijden GA, Timmerman Nijboer A, Reijerse E, Van der Velden U. Comparison of different approaches to assess bleeding on probing as indicators of gingivitis. J Clin Periodontol. 1994b;21:589–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vettore MV, Lamarca Gde A, Leão AT, Sheiham A, Leal Mdo C. Partial recording protocols for periodontal ­disease assessment in epidemiological surveys. Cad Saude Publica. 2007;23:33–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volpe AR, Manhold JH. A method of evaluating the effectiveness of potential calculus inhibiting agents. N Y State Dent J. 1962;28:289–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • von Ohler C, Weiger R, Decker E, Schlagenhauf U, Brecx M. The efficacy of a single pocket irrigation on subgingival microbial vitality. Clin Oral Investig. 1998;2:84–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiger R, Netuschil L, Brecx M. Relationship between bacterial counts, microbial vitality and the accumulation of supragingival dental plaque in humans. J Periodontal Res. 1992;27:575–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiger R, Netuschil L, Von Ohle C, Brecx M. Microbial vitality of supragingival dental plaque during initial stages of experimental gingivitis in humans. J Periodontol Res. 1995;30:204–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiger R, Netuschil L, Wester-Ebbinghaus T, Brecx M. An approach to differentiate between antibacterial and antiadhesive effects of mouthrinses in vivo. Arch Oral Biol. 1998;43:559–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. Oral health surveys: basic methods. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yeganeh S, Lynch E, Jovanovski V, et al. Quantification of root surface plaque using a new 3-D laser scanning method. J Clin Periodontol. 1999;26:692–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zaura-Arite E, van Marle J, ten Cate JM. Confocal microscopy study of undisturbed and chlorhexidine-treated dental biofilm. J Dent Res. 2001;80:1436–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Dumitrescu, A.L. (2012). Quantification of Gingival, Periodontal, and Oral Hygiene Status in Periodontal Research Environment. In: Understanding Periodontal Research. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28923-1_18

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28923-1_18

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-642-28922-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-642-28923-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics