Abstract
This chapter reviews the applications of isotopetronics in different modern technologies and science. It is briefly describes the application of stable isotopes. This chapter describes the new reactor technology-neutron transmutation doping (NTD), capture of thermal neutrons by isotope nuclei followed by nuclear decay produces new elements, resulting in a number of possibilities for isotope selective doping of solids.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
J.M. Meese, (ed.), Neutron Transmutation Doping in Semiconductors (Plenum Press, New York, 1979)
M.A. Krivoglaz, Theory of Scattering X-rays and Thermal Neutrons by Real Crystals (Science, Moscow, 1967) (in Russian)
G. Dolling, in Dynamical Properties of Solids, ed. by G.K. Horton, A.A. Maradudin (North-Holand, Amsterdam, 1974)
B. Dorner, Inelastic Neutron Scattering in Lattice Dynamics, Springer Tracts in Modern Physics, vol. 93. (Berlin, Springer, 1982)
V.G. Plekhanov, Isotope effect in lattice dynamics. Physics Uspekhi 46, 689–715 (2003)
J.M. Meese, in Neutron Transmutation Doping in Semiconductors, ed. by J.M. Meese (New York-London, Plenum Press, 1979), pp. 1–10
V.G. Plekhanov, Applications of isotope effecr in solids. J. Mater. Sci. 38, 3341–3429 (2003)
D.E. Cullen, P.J. Hlavac, ENDF/B Cross Sections (Brookhaven National Laboratory, New York, 1972)
L.S. Smirnov (ed.), Semiconductors Doped by Nuclear Reactions, (Science, Novosibirsk, 1981) (in Russian)
D. De Soete, Neutron Activation Analysis (Wiley, New York, 1971)
K.N. Mukhin, Introduction in Nuclear Physics (Atomizdat, Moscow, 1965) (in Russian)
M. Tanenbaum, A.D. Mils, Preparation of uniform resistivity n-type silicon by nuclear transmutation. J. Electrochem. Soc. 108, 171–174 (1961)
M.S. Snöller, IEEE Trans. Electron. Devices ED-21 313 (1974)
W. Haas, M.S. Snöller, Phosphorus doping of silicon by means of neutron irradiation. J. Electron. Mater. 5, 57–68 (1976)
D.S. Billington, J.H. Crawford, Jr., Radiation Damage in Solids, Chap. 2 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1961)
V.S. Vavilov, Influence of Radiation on the Semiconductors, (Science, Moscow, 1963) (in Russian)
E.E. Haller, Isotopically engineered seniconductore. J. Appl. Phys. 77, 2857–2878 (1995)
E.E. Haller, N.P. Palaio, M. Rodder, W.L. Hansen, E. Kreysa, NTD Germanium: A Novel Material for Low Temperature Bolometers, in ed. by R.L. Larrabee, Neutron Transmutation Doping of Semiconductor Materials, (Plenum Press, New York, 1984), pp. 21–36
K.M. Itoh, E.E. Haller, J.W. Beeman, W.L. Hansen, Hopping conduction and metal-insulator transition in isotopically enriched neutron-transmutation-doped \(^{70}\)Ge:Ga. Phys. Rev. Lett. 77, 4058–4061 (1996)
I. Schlimak, M. Kaveh, R. Ussyshkin et al., Determination of the critical conductivity exponent for the metal - insulator transition at nonzero temperatures: universality of the transition. Phys. Rev. Lett. 77, 1103–1106 (1996)
I. Schlimak, Neutron transmutation doped semiconductors: science and applications. Fiz. Tverd. Tela. 41, 794–798 (1999) (in Russian)
R. Rentzsch, A.N. Ionov, Ch. Reich, V. Ginodman, I. Schlimak, Influence of the disorder germanium changed by compensation on the critical indices of the metal-insulator transition. Fiz. Tverd. Tela. (St. Petersburg) 41, 837–840 (1999)
A.N. Ionov, M.N. Matveev, D.V. Shmik, Determination of the caefficients of neutron transmutation doped germanium. J. Techn. Phys. (St.Petersburg) 59, 169–170 (1989) (in Russian)
I. Schlimak, A.N. Ionov, R. Rentzsch, J.M. Lazebnik, On the doping of isotopically controlled germanium by nuclear transmutation with a high concentration of shallow donor impurities. Semicond. Sci. Technol. 11, 1826–1830 (1996)
H.C. Schweinler, Some consequences of thermal neutron capture in silicon and germanium. J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1125–1126 (1959)
J. Guldberg (ed.), Neutron-Transmutation-Doped Silicon (Plenum Press, New York, 1981)
C.M. Lederer, J.M. Hollander, I. Perlman (eds.), Table of Isotopes, 6th edn. (Wiley, New York, 1967)
B.I. Shklovskii, A.L. Efros, Electronic Properties of Doped Semiconductors: Solid State Series, vol. 45 (Springer, Berlin, 1984)
E.E. Haller, W.L. Hansen, F.S. Goulding, Physics of ultra-pure germanium. Adv. Phys. 30, 93–138 (1981)
H. Fritzsche, The Metal Non-Metal transition in Disordered Systems, ed. by L.R. Friedman, D.P. Tunstall, Scotish Universities Summer School in Physics, (St. Andrews, Scotland, 1978)
N.F. Mott, Metal-Insulator Transition, 2nd edn. (Taylor and Francis, London, 1990)
N.F. Mott, Electrons in disordered structures. Adv. Phys. 50, 865–945 (2001)
P.A. Lee, T.V. Ramakrishnan, Disordered electronic systems. Rev. Mod. Phys. 57, 287–336 (1985)
R. Rentzsch, A.N. Ionov, Ch. Reich, A. Müller, The scaling bahaviour of the metal-insulator transition of isotopically engineered neutron-transmutation-doped germanium. Phys. Stat. Solidi (b) 205, 269 (1998)
T.F. Rosenbaum, K. Andres, G.A. Thomas, F.N. Bhatt, Sharp metal-insulator transition in a random solid. Phys. Rev. Lett. 45, 1723–1726 (1980)
P.F. Newman, D.F. Holcomb, Phys. Rev. B28, 638 (1983)
Metal-insulator transition in a double-donor system, Si:P, As. Phys. Rev. Lett. 51, 2144–2147 (1983)
W.N. Shafarman, D.W. Koon, T.G. Castner, dc conductivity of arsenic-doped silicon near metal-insulator transition. Phys. Rev. B 40, 1216–1231 (1989)
A.N. Ionov, M.J. Lea, R. Rentzsch, Metal-insulator transition in neutron transmutation doped n-type germanium. JETP Lett. (Mosc.) 54, 470–473 (1991)
P. Dai, Y. Zhang, M.P. Sarachik, Critical conductivity exponent for Si:B. Phys. Rev. Lett. 66, 1914–1917 (1991)
G.A. Thomas, Y. Ootuka, S. Katsumoto, S. Kobayashi, W. Sasaki, Evidence for localization effects in compensated semiconductors. Phys. Rev. B 25, 4288–4290 (1982)
M.J. Hirsch, U. Thomanschefsky, D.F. Holcomb, Critical behavior of the zero-temperature conductivity in compensated silico, Si:(P, B). Phys. Rev. B 37, 8257–8261 (1988)
A.G. Zabrodskii, K.N. Zinov’eva, Sov. Phys. JETP 59, 425 (1984)
M. Rohde, H. Micklitz, Indication of universal behavior of Hall conductivity near metal-insulator transition in disordered systems. Phys. Rev. B 36, 7572–7575 (1987)
G. Hertel, D.J. Bishop, E.G. Spencer, R.C. Dynes, Tunneling and transport measurements at the metal-insulator transition of amorphous Nb:Si. Phys. Rev. Lett. 50, 743–746 (1983)
W.L. McMillan, J. Mochel, Electron tunneling experiments on amorphous Ge\(_{1-x}\)Au\(_{x}\). Phys. Rev. Lett. 46, 556–557 (1981)
Th Zint, M. Rohde, H. Micklitz, Metal-insulator transition in amorphous Ga–Ar mixtures: critical exponents of electrical transport parameters and behavior of superconductivity. Phys. Rev. B 41, 4831–4833 (1990)
E.W. Hass, M.S. Schnöller, Phosphorous doping of silicon by means of neutron irradiation. IEEE Trans. Electron Dev. ED 23, 803–805 (1976)
N.F. Mott, The basis of the electron theory of metals, with special reference to the transition metals. Proc. Phys. Soc. (Lond.) A 62, 416–425 (1949)
P.W. Anderson, Absence of diffusion in certain random. Phys. Rev. 109, 1492–1505 (1958)
A. MacKinnon, B. Kramer, One-parameter scaling of localization length and conductance in disordered systems. Phys. Rev. Lett. 47, 1546–1549 (1981)
M. Henneke, B. Kramer, T. Ohtsuki, Localization length and conductance in disordered systems. Europhys. Lett. 27, 389–392 (1994)
E. Hafstetter, M. Schreiber, Does broken time reversal symmetry modify the critical behavior at the metal-insulator transition in 3-dimensional disordered systems? Phys. Rev. Lett. 73, 3137–3140 (1994)
T. Kawarabayashi, T. Ohtsuki, K. Slevin, Y. Ono, Anderson transition in three-dimensional disordered systems with symplectic symmetry. Phys. Rev. Lett. 77, 3593–3596 (1996)
J. Chang, M.M. Dacorogna, M.L. Cohen, Superconductivity in high-pressure metallic phases of Si. Phys. Rev. Lett. 54, 2375–2378 (1985)
R.D. Larrabee (ed.), Neutron Transmutation Doping of Semiconductor Materials (Plenum Press, New York, 1984)
A.N. Ionov, I.S. Shlimak, M.N. Matveev, An experimental determination of the critical exponents at the metal-insulator transition. Solid State Commun. 47, 763–766 (1983)
D. Chattopadhyay, H.J. Queisser, Electron scattering by ionized impurities in semiconductors. Rev. Mod. Phys. 53, 745–768 (1981)
V.G. Plekhanov, Isotope engineering, Phys. Uspekhi (Mosc.) 170, 1147–1152 (2000) (in Russian)
K. Itoh, W.L. Hansen, E.E. Haller, J.W. Farmer, V.I. Ozhogin, in Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Shallow Levels in Semiconductors, Kobe, Japan, 1992
H.D. Fuchs, K.M. Itoh, E.E. Haller, Isotopically controlled germanium: a new medium for the study of carrier scattering by neutral impurities. Philos. Mag. B 70, 661–670 (1994)
W. von Ammon, Neutron transmutation doped silicon-technologica and economic aspects. Nucl. Instrum. Methods B 63, 95–100 (1992)
K.M. Itoh, W. Walukiewicz, H.D. Fuchs, J.W. Beeman, E.E. Haller, V.I. Ozhogin, Neutral-impurity scattering in isotopically engineered Ge. Phys. Rev. B 50, 16995–17000 (1994)
K. Itoh, W.L. Hansen, V.I. Ozhogin et al., High-purity isotopically enriched \(^{70}\)Ge and \(^{74}\)Ge single crystals: isotope separation, purification and growth. J. Mater. Res. 8, 1341–1347 (1993)
C. Erginsoy, Neutral impurity scattering in semiconductors. Phys. Rev. 79, 1013–1014 (1950)
A.I. Ansel’m, Influence resonant scattering of the charges on the impurity centres on the electrical properties of semiconductors, Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. (Mosc.), 24, 83–89 (1953) (in Russian)
N. Sclar, Neutral impurity scattering in semiconductors. Phys. Rev. 104, 1559–1561 (1956)
N. Sclar, Ionized impurity scattering in nondegenerate semiconductors, 104, 1548–1558 (1956)
T.C. McGill, R. Baron, Neutral impurity scattering in semiconductors. Phys. Rev. B 11, 5208–5210 (1975)
B.K. Ridley, Quantum Process in Semiconductors, 3\(^{rd}\) ed (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1993)
R.D. Dingle, Scattering of electrons and holes by charged donors and acceptors in semiconductors, Philos. Mag. 46831–46840 (1955)
H. Brooks, Theory of the electrical properties of germanium and silicon. Adv. Electron. Electron Phys. 7, 85–182 (1955)
W. Shockley, Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors (Van Nostrand Reinhold, Princeton, 1950)
J. Blakemore, Semiconductor Statistics, 2nd edn. (Dover, New York, 1985)
V.G. Dzhakeli, Z.S., Kachlishvili, To the theory of acattering on neutral impurity atoms. Sov. Phys. Semicond. 18, 1482–1484 (1984)
B.J. Baliga, Neutron transmutation doped silicon for power semiconductor devices, in Neutron Transmutation Doping of Semiconductor Materials, ed. by R.D. Larrabeeed, (Plenum Press, New York, 1984), pp. 167–180
J.W. Farmer, J.C. Nugent, Transient current spectroscopy of neutron irradiated silicon, in Neutron Transmutation Doping of Semiconductor Materials, ed. by R.D. Larrabee, (Plenum Press, New York, 1984) pp. 225–240
K. Lark-Horowitz, Bombardment semiconductors by nuclons, in Proceedings Conference on semiconductor materials, ed. by H.K. Henish (Butterworth, London, 1951) pp. 47–79
M.J. Hill, P.M. van Iseghem, W. Zimmerman, Preparartion and application of neutron transmutation doped silicon for power device research, IEEE Trans. Electron Device ED 23, 809–813 (1976)
J. Messier, Y. le Corroler, J.M. Flores, Thick junctions made with nuclear compensated silicon. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS - 11, 276–279 (1964)
H.M. James, O. Malmros, Application of thermal neutron irradiation for large scale production of homogeneous phosphorous doping of floatzone silicon. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices ED 23, 797–802 (1976)
P.V. van Iseghem, p-i-n epitaxial structures forhigh power devices. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices ED 23, 823–825 (1976)
International Atomic Energy Agency Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Materials, Rev. Ed., 1973, p. 8
H. Hamanaka, K. Kuriyama, M. Yahagi et al., Doping of phosphorus in hydrogenated amorphous silicon by a neutron transmutation doping technique. Appl. Phys. Lett. 45, 786–788 (1984)
D.W. Koon, T.G. Castner, Does the Hall coefficient exhibit critical behavior approaching the metal-insulator transition? Phys. Rev. Lett. 60, 1755–1758 (1988)
P. Dai, Y. Zhang, M.P. Sarachik, Critical behavior of the Hall coefficient of Si:P at the metal-insulator transition. Phys. Rev. B 49, 14039–14042 (1994)
H. Grussbach, M. Schreiber, Determination of the mobility edge in the Anderson model of localization in three dimensions by multifractal analysis. Phys. Rev. B 51, 663–666 (1995)
P. Dai, Y. Zhang, M.P. Sarachik, Critical behavior of the Hall coefficient of Si:B. Phys. Rev. Lett. 70, 1968–1971 (1993)
S.B. Field, T.F. Rosenbaum, Critical behavior of the Hall conductivity at the metal-insulator transition. Phys. Rev. Lett. 55, 522–524 (1985)
M.H. Young, A.T. Hunter, R. Baron, O.I. Marsch, Neutron transmutation doping of p-type Czochralski–Grown galliuym arsenide, in Neutron Transmutation Doping of Semiconductor Materials, ed. by R.D. Larrabee (Plenum Press, New York, 1984), pp. 1–20
R. Rentzsch, K.J. Friedland, A.N. Ionov, Negative magnetoresistance of neutron transmutation-doped gallium arsenide at vriable-range hopping. Phys. Stat. Solidi (b) 146, 199–206 (1988)
R. Magerle, A. Burchard, M. Deicher, T. Kerle, Radioactive isotopes in photoluminescence experiments: identification of defect levels. Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 1594–1597 (1995)
K. Kuriyama, K. Sakai, LO-phonon and plasmon coupling in neutron-transmutation-doped GaAs. Phys. Rev. B 53, 987–989 (1996)
K. Kuriyama, Y. Miyamoto, T. Koyama, O. Ogawa, Ion channeling study of the lattice disorder in neutron irradiated GaP. J. Appl. Phys. 86, 2352–2354 (1999)
K. Kuriyama, K. Ohbora, M. Okada, Photoluminescence from transmuted impurities in neutron-transmutation-doped semi-insulating GaP. Solid State Commun. 113, 415–418 (2000)
S.M. Sze, Physics of Semiconductor Devices (Wiley, New York, 1969)
H. Kressel (ed.), Semiconductor Devices for Optical Communications: Topics in Applied Physice, vol. 39 (Springer, Berlin, 1982)
P.C. Becker, M.R.X. de Barras, in Materials for Optoelectronics, ed. by M. Quilec (Kluver Academic Publishers, Boston, 1996)
A.W. Snyder, J.D. Love, Optical Waveguide Theory (Chapman and Hall Medical, London, 1996)
D. Marcuse, Light Transmission Optics (Van Nostrand, New York, 1972)
W.B. Allan, Fibre Optics Theory and Practice (Plenum Press, New York, 1973)
N.S. Kapany, Fiber Optics (Academic Press, New York, 1967)
J.A. Arnaud, Beam and Fibre Optics (Academic Press, New York, 1976)
D. Marcuse, Theory of Dielectric Optical Waveguides (Academic Press, New York, 1974)
J.E. Midwinter, Optical Fibers for Transmission (Wiley, New York, 1979)
V.G. Plekhanov, Applications of the Isotopic Effect in Solids (Springer, Berlin, 2004)
R.W. Pohl, Itroduction into Optics (Science, Moscow, 1947) (in Russian)
L.M. Zhuravleva, V.G. Plekhanov, Method of Fiber’s Manufacture. Patent of Russian Federation N 2302381, 10 July 2007
J. Ruth, The uses of radiotracers in the life sciences. Rep. Prog. Phys. 72, 01670–23 (2009)
L.L. Gol’din, M.F. Lomakov, O.V. Savchenko et al., Application of high energy charged particles in medicine, Uspekhi Phys. (Mosc.) 110, 77–99 (1973) (in Russian)
U. Amaldi, G. Kraft, Radiotherapy with beams of carbon ions. Rep. Prog. Phys. 68, 1861–1882 (2005)
M.M. Ter-Pogossian, in Positron Emission Tomography, ed. by I. Reivich, A. Alovi (Alan R. Press, New York, 1985)
S.I. Adelstein, F.Y. Manning, Isotopes for Medicine and Life Science (National Academy Press, Washington, 1995)
J. Harbert, A.F.G. de Roche, Textbook of Nuclear Medicine: Basic Science, vol. 1 (Lea and Fetiger, Filadelphia, 1984)
S. - C. Huang, Principles of tracer kinetic modeling in positron emission tomography and autoradiography, in Positron Emission Tomography and Autoradiography: Principles and Applications for the brain and Heart, ed. by M.E. Phelps, M.C. Mazotta, M.R. Schelbert, (Raven, New York, 1986
S.R. Berman, Positron emission tomography of heart in, cardiac nuclear medicine, 3rd edn. in Health Professons Division, ed. by M.C. Gerson (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1997)
P.E. Valk, D.L. Bailey, D.W. Townsend, Positron Emission Tomography: Basic Science and Clinical Practice (Springer, New York, 2004)
H. Bender, H. Palmelo, P.E. Valk, Atlas of Clinical PET in Oncology: PET versus CT and MRI (Springer, New York, 2000)
V.G. Plekhanov, Manifestation and Origin of the Isotope Effect, ArXiv, phys/0907.2024 (2009), p. 195
T. Gehrels (ed.), Protostars and Planets (University of Arizona Press, Tuscon, 1978)
G. Wallerstein, I. Jhen Jr, P. Parker, et al., Synthesos of the elements in stars: forty years of progress. Rev. Mod. Phys. 69, 995–1084 (1997)
S. Esposito, Primordial Nucleosynthesis: Accurate Prediction for Light Element Abundances, ArXiv:astro-ph/ 9904411
W.H. King, Isotope Shift in Atomic Spectra (Plenum, New York, 1984)
V.G. Plekhanov, Isotope-Mixed Crystals: Fundamentals and Applications, Bentham, e-books, 2011. ISBN 978-1-60805-091-8
W.F. Libby, Radiocarbon Dating (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1952)
M. Stuiver, C.W. Pearson, High-precision bidecadel calibration of the radiocarbon timescale, Ad 1950–500 BC and 2500–6000 BC. Radiocarbon 35, 1–23 (1993)
M. Stuiver, P.J. Reimer, Extended (super14)C data base and revisited CALIB 3.0 (super 14)C age calibration program, ibid, 35 (N 1) pp. 215–230 (1993)
R.E. Taylor, Radiocarbon Dating: An Archaeological Perspective (Academic Press, New York, 1987)
R.E. Taylor, M.J. Aitken (eds.), Chronometric Dating in Archaeology (Plenum Press, New York, 1997)
E.M.D. Symabalisty, D.N. Schramm, Nucleocosmochronology. Rep. Progr. Phys. 44, 293–328 (1981)
M. Wolfsberg, W.A. van Hook, P. Paneth et al., Isotope Effects: In the Chemical, Geological and Bio Sciences (Springer, Berlin, 2009)
M.J. Aitken, Thermoluminescence (Academic, London, 1985)
M.J. Aitken, Introduction in Optical Dating (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1985)
M.J. Aitken, C.B. Stinger, P.A. Mellars (eds.), The Origin of Modern Humans and the Impact of Chronometric Dating (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1993)
M.J. Aitken, Archaelogical dating using physical phenomena. Rep. Progr. Phys. 62, 1333–1376 (1999)
S.W.S. McKeever, Thermoluminescence of Solids (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985)
J. Groh, G.V. Hevesey, Ann. Phys. 65, 318 (1920), cited in [135]
G. Schatz, A. Weidinger, J.A. Gardner, Nuclear Condensed Matter (Wiley, New York, 1996)
D. Forkel-Wirth, Exploring solid state physics properties with radioactive isotopes. Rep. Prog. Phys. 62, 527–597 (1999)
D. Forkel-Wirth, M. Deicher, Radioactive isotopes in solid state physics, Nucl. Phys. A 693, 327–341 (2001)
M. Lindros, H. Hass, H. Pattyn et al., Unusually large substitutional fraction for Fr implanted in Fe observed by emission channeling. Nucl. Instrum. Methods B64, 256–260 (1992)
M. Restle, H. Quintel, C. Ronning, Lattice sites of ion implanted Li in diamond. Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2733–2775 (1995)
V.S. Amarel, Microscopic studies of radioactive Mg implanted in YBa\( _{2} \)Cu\(_{3}\)O\(_{6}+x\) superconductor. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 177-81, 511–512 (1998)
J. Lohmuller, H. Hass, G. Schatz, PAC investigation of \(^{77}{} \longrightarrow ^{77}\)Se on silicon, Hyperfine Interact. 97/98, 203–207 (1996)
H. Granzer, H. Hass, G. Schatz, Magnetic hyperfine fields at Se adatoms on Ni surfaces. Phys. Rev. Lett. 77, 4261–4264 (1996)
H.H. Bertschat, H. Hass, R. Kowallik, New approach for range measurements of induced magnetic interaction in Pd. Phys. Rev. Lett. 78, 342–345 (1997)
K. Kuriyama, K. Sakai, LO phonon and plasmon coupling in NTD GaAs. Phys. Rev. B 53, 987–989 (1996)
V.Ju. Baranov, (ed.), Isotopes, vol. 1 and 2 (Fizmatlit, Moscow, 2005) (in Russian)
T. Sekine, K. Uchinokura, E. Marzuura, Two-phonon Raman scattering in GaAs. J. Phys. Chem. Solids 38, 1091–1096 (1977)
T. Kawakubo, M. Okada, Electrical and optical properties of neutron-irradiated GaP crystals. J. Appl. Phys. 67, 3111–3116 (1990)
H. Ahlawadhi, R. Vogelgesang, T.P. Chin, Indirect transitions, free- and impurity-bound excitons in GaP. J. Appl. Phys. 82(N 9), 4331–4335 (1997)
P. Dean, Inter-impurity recombinations in semiconductors. Prog. Solid State Chem. 8, 1–126 (1973)
YuV Tarbeyev, A.K. Kaliteyevsky, V.I. Sergeyev, Scientific, engineering and metrological problems in producing pure \(^{28}\)Si and growing single crystals. Metrologia 31, 269–273 (1994)
U. Kuegens, P. Becker, X-ray interferometry and practical set-up for calibrated in the microrad range with nanorad resolution. Meas. Sci. Technol. 9(N 8), 1072–1075 (1998)
A.D. Bulanov, G.G. Devyatych, A.V. Gusev et al., The highly isotopic enriched (99.9%) high-pure \(^{28}\)Si single crystal. Cryst. Res. Technol. 35, 1023–1026 (2000)
P. Becker, History and progress in the accurate determination of the Avogadro constant. Rep. Prog. Phys. 64, 1945–2008 (2001)
P. Becker, The molar volume of sinle-crystal silicon. Metrologia 38, 85–86 (2001)
P. Becker, M. Gläser, Avogadro constant and ion accumulation: steps towards a reditermination of the SI unit of mass. Meas. Sci. Technol. 14, 1249–1258 (2003)
P. Becker, Tracing the definition of the kilogram to the Avogadro constant using a silicon single crystal. Metrologia 40, 366–375 (2003)
I.M. Mills, P.J. Mohr, B.N. Taylor, Redifinition of the kilogram: a decision whose time has come. Metrologia 42, 71–80 (2005)
A. Picard, Mass determination of a 1 kg silicon sphere for the Avogadro project. Metrologia 43, 46–52 (2006)
P. Becker, O.N. Godisov, P. Taylor, Large-scale production of highly enriched \(^{28}\)Si. Meas. Sci. Technol. 17, 1854–1860 (2006)
P.J. Mohr, B.N. Taylor, CODATA recomended values of the fundamental physical constants: 1998. Rev. Mod. Phys. 72, 351–495 (2000)
J.I. Pankove, Optical Processes in Semiconductors (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1971)
J.S. Blakemore, Semiconducting and other major properties of gallium arsenide. J. Appl. Phys. 53, R123–R181 (1982)
M. Sze, High Speed Devices (Wiley, New York, 1991)
T. Ihn, Semiconductors Nanostructures: Quantum States and Electronic Transport (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2009)
S. Lindsay, Introduction to Nanosciences (Oxford University Press, New York, 2009)
M.H. Devoret, R.J. Shoelkopf, Amplifying quantum signals with the single-electron transistor. Nature 406, 1038–1046 (2000)
K. Goser, P. Glösekötter, J. Dienstuhl, Nanoelectronics and Nanosystems (Springer, Berlin, 2004)
M.J. Kelly, Low-Dimensional Semiconductors (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1995)
H. Grabert (ed.) Single Charge Tunneling (Special Issue), Zs. Physik 85 (N3) (1991)
K. Seeger, Semiconductor Physics (Springer, Wien-New York, 1973)
K. Barnham, D. Vvedensky, Low-Dimensional Semiconductor Structures (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009)
N. Gerasimenko, Ju Parhomenko, Silicon-Material of Nanoelectronics (Moscow, Technosphera, 2007). (in Russian)
A.V. Eletskii, Mechanical properties of carbon nanostructures and related materials. Uspekhi Fiz. Nauk (Mosc.) 177, 233–274 (2007)
H. Grabert, M.H. Devored (eds.), Single Charge Tunneling: Coulomb Blockade Phenomena in Nanostructures, NATO ASI Series B, vol. 294. (Plenum, New York, 1992)
S. Washburn, R.A. Webb, Quantum transport in small disordered samples from the diffuse to the ballistic regime. Rep. Prog. Phys. 55, 1311–1383 (1992)
D.V. Averin, A.N. Korotkov, K.K. Likharev, Theory of single electron charging of quantum wells and dots. Phys. Rev. 44, 6199–6211 (1991)
M.A. Kastner, The single electron transistor. Rev. Mod. Phys. 64, 849–858 (1992)
J. Bylander, T. Duty, P. Delsing, Current measurement by real-time counting of single electrons. Nature 434, 361–364 (2005)
D.V. Averin, A.A. Odintsov, S.A. Vyshenski, Ultimate accuracy of single-electron dc current standards. J. Appl. Phys. 73, 1297–1308 (1993)
Y. Ono, A. Fujiwara, K. Nishiguch et al., Manipulation and detection of single electrons for future information processing. J. Appl. Phys. 97, 031101–031119 (2005)
K. Thyagarajan, A.K. Ghatak (eds.), Lasers Theory and Applications ( Plenum Press, New York, 1982)
O. Svelto, Principles of Lasers, 2nd edn. (Plenum Press, New York, 1982)
N.V. Karlov, Lectures on Quantum Electronics. (Science, Moscow, 1983) (in Russian)
M.S. Brodin, V. Ya. Reznitchenko, Interactions of the laser intensity radiation with A\(_{2}\)B\(_{6}\) semiconductors, in Physics \(A_{2}\) \(B_{6}\) Compounds, ed. by A.N. Georgabiani and M.K. Sheinkman (Science, Moscow, 1986), pp. 184–225 (in Russian)
A.J. Taylor, D.J. Erskine, C.L. Tang, Ultrafast relaxation of photoexcited carriers in GaAs and related compounds. J. Opt. Soc. Am. (B) 2, 663–673 (1985)
J.A. Kash, J.C. Tsang, in Light Scattering in Solids, Vol. 6, ed. by M. Cardona, G. Güntherodt (Springer, Berlin, 1991), pp. 423–467
W.P. Dumke, Interband transitions and maser action. Phys. Rev. 127, 1559–1563 (1962)
R.E. Nahory, K.L. Shakley, R.F. Leheny, R.A. Logan, Indirect-band-gap super-radiant laser in GaP containing isoelectronic traps. Phys. Rev. Lett. 27, 1647–1650 (1971)
H. Kressel, in Laser Handbook, Chap. B5, ed. by F.T. Arechi, E.O. Schulz-Dubois (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1972), p. 271--319
F. Stern, ibid, Chap. B4
C. Klingshirn, Lasers processes in semiconductors, in Spectr. Solid-State Laser Type Matter. (Proc. Course Enrico Fermi, Erice, 1987), pp. 485–501
C.A. Klein, Further remarks on electron beam pumping lasers materials. Appl. Optics 5, 1922–1924 (1966)
C.A. Klein, Power efficiency and quantum efficiencies of electron-beam pumped lasers, IEEE QE 4, 186–194 (1968)
H. Haug, Theory of laser action involving free excitons and LO-phonon-assisted transitions. J. Appl. Phys. 39, 4687–4696 (1968)
H. Haug, Nonlinear optical phenomena and bistability in semiconductors. Adv. Solid State Phys. 22, 149–171 (1982)
H. Haug, S. Koch, On the theory of laser action in dense exciton systems. Phys. Stat. Solidi (b) 82, 531–543 (1977)
K.C. Liu, R.L. Liboff, Criterion for exciton lasing in pure crystals. J. Appl. Phys. 54, 5633–5637 (1983)
R.S. Knox, Theory of Excitons (Academic Press, New York, 1963)
E.F. Gross, Selected Papers (Science, Leningrad, 1976) (in Russian)
D.G. Thomas (ed.), II–VI Semiconducting Compounds (Benjamin, New York, 1967)
N.G. Basov, O.V. Bogdankevich, A.G. Devyatkov, Sov. Phys. JETP 20, 1902 (1964)
N.G. Basov, O.V. Bogdankevich, A.G. Devyatkov Sov, Phys. Solid State 8, 1221 (1966)
J.R. Packard, D.A. Campbell, W.C. Tait, Evidence for indirect annihilation of free excitons in II–VI semiconductor lasers. J. Appl. Phys. 38, 5255–5258 (1967)
C. Benoit a la Guilaume, J.M. Debever, F. Salvan, in II–VI Semiconducting Compounds, ed. by D.G. Thomas (Benjamin, New York, 1967), p. 609
C. Benoit a la Guilaume, J.M. Debever, F. Salvan, Radiative recmbination in highly excited CdS. Phys. Rev. 177, 567–580 (1969)
L.A. Kulevsky, A.M. Prokhorov, The nature of the laser transition in CdS vrystal at 90K with two-photon excitaion. IEEE QE 2, 584–586 (1966)
M.S. Brodin, K.A. Dmitrenko, S.G. Shevel, L.V. Taranenko, The temperature dependence of laser threshold in CdS single crystals under one-photon excitation. in Proceedings of the International Conference on Lasers?82 (STS Press, USA, 1983), pp. 287–291
M.S. Brodin, S.V. Zakrevski, V.S. Mashkevich, V. Ya, Reznitchenko, On mechanism of generation of laser radiation in CdS\(_{x}\)CdSe\(_{1-x}\) crystals in case of two-photon excitation. Sov. Phys. Semicond. 1, 595–597 (1967)
V.G. Plekhanov, Fundamentals and applications of isotope effect in solids. Prog. Mater. Sci. 51, 281–426 (2006)
V.G. Plekhanov, Resonant secondary emission spectra and some peculiarities of relaxation processes in crystals with self-trapping excitons, in Proceedings of the International Conference on LASERS’80 (McClean, STS, 1981), pp. 91–99
K. Takiyama, M.I. Abd-Elrahman, T. Fujita, T. Okada, Photolumonescence and decay kinetics of indirect free excitons in diamonds under the near-resonant laser excitation. Solid State Commun. 99, 793–796 (1996)
V.G. Plekhanov, V.I. Altukhov, Free exciton luminescence and exciton-phonon interactions parameters of wide-gap insulators, in Proceedings of the International Conference on LASERS’82 (McClean, STS, 1983), pp. 292–299
C. Klingshirn, H. Haug, Optical properties of highly excited direct gap semiconductors. Phys. Reports 70, 315–398 (1981)
V.G. Plekhanov, Wannier–Mott excitons in isotope-disordered crystals. Rep. Prog. Phys. 61, 1045–1098 (1998)
V.G. Plekhanov, Comparative study of isotope and chemical effects on the exciton states in LiH crystals. Prog. Solid State Chem. 29, 71–177 (2001)
V.G. Plekhanov, Changes in spectra of luminescence and Raman scattering of ithium hydride uner growth in the excitation intensity. Quantum Electron. (Mosc.) 16, 2156–2159 (1989) (in Russian)
H.C. Casey, M.B. Panish, Heterostructure Lasers (Academic Press, New York, 1978)
P.S. Zoty, Quantum Well Lasers (Academic Press, Boston, 1993)
L.A. Colderen, S.W. Corzine, Diode Lasers and Photonic Integrated Cicuits (Wiley, New York, 1995)
V.M. Ustinov, A.E. Zukov, A.Y. Egorov, N.A. Maleen, Quantum Dot Lasers (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003)
P. Michler (ed.), Single Semiconductor Quantum Dots (Springer, Berlin, 2009)
N.N. Ledentsov, V.M. Ustinov, V.A. Shchukin et al., Quantum dot heterostructures: fabrication, properties, lasers. Fiz. Teh. Polup. (Phys. Tech. Semicond.) 32, 385–410 (1998) (in Russian)
L. Sirigu, D.Y. Oberli, L. Deriorgi et al., Excitonic lasing in semiconductor quantum wires. Phys. Rev. B61, R10575–4 (2000)
F. Rossi, E. Molinari, Linear and nonlinear optical properties of realistic quantum-wire structures: the dominant role of Coulomb correlation. Phys. Rev. B53, 16462–16473 (1996)
F. Rossi, G. Goldoni, E. Molinari, Theory of excitonic confinement in semiconductor quantum wires. J. Phys. Condens. Matter 11, 5969–5988 (1999)
D. Bimberg, M. Grundman, N.N. Ledentsov, Quantum Dot Heterostructure (Wiley, Chichester, 1999)
J.M. Martinez-Duart, R.J. Martin-Palma, F. Agullo-Rueda, Nanotechnology for Microelectronics and Optoelectronics, (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2013 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Plekhanov, V. (2013). Traditional Application of Stable and Radioactive Isotopes. In: Isotopes in Condensed Matter. Springer Series in Materials Science, vol 162. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28723-7_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28723-7_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-28722-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-28723-7
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)