Abstract
Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, its political leaders have been greatly concerned with demographic developments and have looked for ways to govern the reproductive behaviour of the population (Greenhalgh and Winckler 2005). The logical consequence, to make a thorough register of the people and draw up census data as a basis for social-political decisions, was not a communist invention, but originated in the first half of the twentieth century. At that time, European and American scientific ideas of Malthusian-influenced demography, Social Darwinist race-biology, and statistics combined with older, late Imperial Chinese notions of collecting population numbers (Lee and Wang 1999; Dikötter 1995: 102–121).
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Notes
- 1.
Interestingly, the Hubu (literally: Board of Households) is usually translated in English as Board of Revenue to indicate its actual function.
- 2.
Ho Ping-ti even states, that there was a “lack of even rudimentary demographic interest on the part of high officials”. (Ho 1959: 38)
- 3.
See the references in the introductory part. For an overview on the many facets of Qing rule see Waley-Cohen (2004).
- 4.
For an overall account of the emergence of European–American statistics up to 1912, see the recent study of Andrea Bréard. This paper only outlines some aspects which show the increasing significance attributed to population statistics.
- 5.
Mayr authored many books about population statistics, and was vice president and honorary member of the International Statistical Institute, honorary member of the Royal Statistical Society in London and the Société de Statistique in Paris, as well as president of the newly founded Deutsche Statistische Gesellschaft in 1911, see Neue Deutsche Biographie (1990).
- 6.
An overview is offered by Ichiko (1980: 375–415). A more recent assessment of the Xinzheng-Reforms, which emphasizes the significance of these reforms as the fundament of China’s modern state, is Horowitz (2003), who systematically contrasts the difference between the established Qing bureaucracy and the European, American, and later Japanese ministerial governments. See also Strauss (1997, 2003) and Thompson (2003).
- 7.
- 8.
The original Statistical Department was closed down under President Yuan Shikai, who aimed to centralize the gathering of population statistics and other material under the aegis of his Political Bureau. It was reestablished in 1916 after Yuan’s death. For this period see Wang (1986: 12–14), Li and Mo (1993: 232ff.).
- 9.
For a table of birth and death rates in Beijing over a period of six years, see the third issue. Altogether, the magazine was concerned more with economic and sociological, rather than population, statistics.
- 10.
Minguo shiqinian geshengshi hukou diaocha tongji baogao 1931: bianyan 1. From now on Minguo (1931).
- 11.
The report included statistics on children, the working population, and able-bodied men, who could be subject to conscription (zhuangding).
- 12.
For the census, a contemporary introduction to the preceding (late Qing) and the later population investigations, registration efforts, and the respective regulations and laws of the government, as well as surveys of non-governmental organization, see Wen Yonggou. Wo guo lilai zhi renkou diaocha (Population Surveys in the History of China), TB (1934, 26:1–14). The population total was subject to discussion and recalculated several times. See also Jiang (1993: 105).
- 13.
The Statistical Directorate now had the rank of a department (ju). As the ministry itself translated both chu and ju as directorate (in the cases of Zhujichu and its subordinate Tongjiju), the English rendering of the institution as Statistical Directorate will be retained. The hierarchy in Chinese at the time, generally but not always, was bu (ministry), chu (directorate), ju (department), ke (bureau), si (office). The Zhujiju became a full ministry in 1948 and was renamed Zhujibu (in English it was then named Ministry of Budget, Accounts, and Statistics). It was renamed one year later, but still had the rank of Ministry. See the editorial note in the Tongji yuebao.
- 14.
The others were: Statistics concerning Agriculture and other Extractive Industries (chanye tongji); Economic and Financial Statistics (jingji ji caizheng tongji); Political, Educational and International Statistics (zhengzhi ji guoji tongji); General Affairs and Personnel Statistics (zongwu ji renshi tongji). In 1947 two additional bureaus were established, which primarily managed statistics on the work of the whole Republican administration. On the tasks of the Statistical Directorate see Wu Dayao. Zhujichu tongjiju zhizu zhi jiqi shiye (The Organization and Activities of the Statistical Directorate of the General Directorate), TB (1935, 1: 1–14). Wu was then director. Note that all translations here are given by the Tongji yuebao itself. On the Zhujiju see also Ren (2008: 25ff.).
- 15.
- 16.
Another publication was the Journal of the Statistical Study Society of China (Zhongguo tongji xueshe xuebao).
- 17.
These are only some of the major governmental publications. Altogether, there existed over one hundred statistical publications by the central government, provinces, and private organizations (including academic institutions), demonstrating the immense increase of statistical surveys in every imaginable field, especially after 1930.
- 18.
In 1935, it was re-launched and changed its name to Statistical Quarterly (Tongji jibao) but returned to the old name at the end of 1936.
- 19.
He mentioned, for instance, the Statistische Reichsamt, the Statistique General de la France [sic], the Divisione di Statistica Generale [sic], and the Direccion General del Instituto Geografino Cadastral y pe Statistica [sic].
- 20.
See, for instance, TB (1933, 14), which exclusively dealt with population investigation. In his analysis of the census of 1928, Huang Zhong uses German terminology like Stichtag (cut-off date, diaocha riqi) to emphasize his criticism and again demonstrate the transnational character of statistics as a scientific subject. Huang Zhong. Ping Minguo shiqinian woguo quanguo renkou diaocha de fangfa (Criticism of the Methods of the 1928 National Census), TB (1933, 14: 76).
- 21.
After 1934, the Guomindang reintroduced the baojia-system in parts of the country. This was no step backward, but an expression of the importance the government attached to the registration and control of population. Even during the wars with the Japanese, and then with the Communists, this interest did not cease. In 1947, the government again planned to conduct a new census to be performed by the newly formed Department of Population (Hukouju). The census was carried out under the Communist Party, which also inherited the idea of governing the population. See Jiang (1993: 108).
Abbreviations
- TK:
-
Tongji yuekan 统计月刊 (The Statistical Monthly Magazine)
- TB:
-
Tongji yuebao 统计月报 (The Statistical Monthly)
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Schillinger, N. (2012). Survey the People. In: Flüchter, A., Richter, S. (eds) Structures on the Move. Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-19288-3_5
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