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Exporting Military Revolutions and the Changing Clausewitzian Triad between People, Armed Forces and Ruler at the Turn of the Nineteenth Century

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Abstract

Using the Turks as an example and as a way of indirectly criticising France, one of the most successful French generals of the eighteenth century, the Maréchal de Saxe (1696–1750), in his Mes Rêveries pondered on the difficulties of nations to learn (written 1732, published posthumously in 1757) (Parker 1991: 174). “It is hard for one nation to learn from another, either from pride, idleness or stupidity. Inventions take a long time to be accepted (and sometimes, even though everyone accepts their usefulness, in spite of everything they are abandoned in favour of tradition and routine).”

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The lecture was held in 1955 at Queen’s University, Belfast. It was first printed in Belfast 1956.

  2. 2.

    The image of “revolutionary waves” is inspired by Samuel Huntington’s “waves of democratization” (Huntington 1991).

  3. 3.

    Data compiled from: Thomson (1994, 29) and for numbers with ratios: Kroener (2008a: 222).

  4. 4.

    Eastern European countries, especially Russia with large un-free peasant populations, constituted the exceptions to the rule and raised the topic of differences between the centre and the periphery for Europe.

  5. 5.

    Our colleague at the Historical Institute of the University of Heidelberg, Dr. Isabelle Deflers, is currently working on an extensive study on Flows of ideas about Prussia in France between 1763 and 1806.

  6. 6.

    Clausewitz himself (modestly) would not have defined his writings as a theory of war but only as “preliminary notes for a possible theory of war”. For English introductions to the person and his theories see Paret (1985) and Strachan (2008). See also the introductory essay Bernard Brodie in Clausewitz (1976). All quotes from On War in this essay are taken from this edition and quoted as: Clausewitz. On War.

  7. 7.

    On Clausewitz and history see especially Paret (1985: 78–89, 327–355). Also Paret (1992: 130–142). For selected historical and political writings by Clausewitz in English see Clausewitz (1992).

  8. 8.

    In a footnote Hans Rothfels named some of the authors on whom Clausewitz wrote excerpts, among them Montecuccoli, Folard, Maurice de Saxe, Turpin, Guibert, Lloyd, Tempelhoff, Mauvillon, Venturini, Turenne, Herzog von Braunschweig. (Rothfels 1920: 29–30, note 5)

  9. 9.

    Gat argues that the ways in which Clausewitz was subsequently received actually contributed to a rapidly decreasing interest in the out-dated theories of war of the “military enlightenment”.

  10. 10.

    The term civil-military relations is not from Clausewitz or his time, but it is taken from the mid-twentieth century to give my points more clarity. A discussion of the translation and interpretation of terms central to Clausewitz has been on-going at least since the publication of the English edition and translation of On War by Michael Howard and Peter Paret in 1976.

  11. 11.

    The Trinity cannot be discussed here. A superb discussion of “Clausewitz’s Legacy: The Trinity” may be found in Herberg-Rothe (2007).

  12. 12.

    Adolf Menzel (born in Breslau 1815, died in Berlin 1905) became famous for his images of “Friedrich dem Großen und seiner Taten” (“Frederick the Great and his achievements”). For a contextualisation of Menzel in “Art as History and History as Politics” see Paret (1990/1988). Richard Knötel (1857–1914) is also well known among experts for his illustrated work Uniformkunde in 18 volumes.

  13. 13.

    My focus here is on the infantry soldiers as they were much more numerous than the light cavalry and therefore played a more important role in the evolution of these units into units of citizen soldiers and in forming the nucleus for citizen armies. For an overview of the development of the light units and small war in Prussia see Rink (1999).

  14. 14.

    Initiated by Lazare Carnot—later often called “the organiser of victory”- in the wars of the coalition. For a critical approach to the historical appraisal of the levée en masse see Cohen, especially chapter 2: 42–59.

  15. 15.

    Archives Parlementaires de 1787 à 1860, vol. IX, 1877: 520–521. Quoted after Michael Sikora in Baumgart et al. (2008: 135). Details about the French conscription and its problems are described in Woloch (1986). Also in Moran and Waldron (2003: 1–7).

  16. 16.

    Schnitter (1994). For the ideas of major reformers concerning general conscription see Kessel (1987).

  17. 17.

    It is not possible to address the concepts of “absolute war”, “total war” and their relation to “guerrilla war” or “people”s war” in this context.

  18. 18.

    For Clausewitz and his struggle see “The Logic of Patriotism” in Paret (1985: 209–221).

  19. 19.

    Huntington (1957, 20), Abrahamson (1972). For a brief summary of the overwhelming literature on the main theories concerning civil-military relations see Schiff (1995).

  20. 20.

    Vazsonyi (1999). One of the editors of this volume, Dr. Susan Richter, is an expert on these German thinkers of the eighteenth century, notably Justi and Moser. For more see her contribution in this volume and a number of forthcoming articles.

  21. 21.

    Clausewitz is one of the examples of a Prussian patriot and professional since he went into Russian service when Prussia was obliged to become an ally of the French. At Tauroggen, 1812, he participated as a Russian staff officer in convincing the Prussian general Ludwig von Yorck to “neutralise” his troops and not to support the French contingent any more. This actually meant valuing Prussia higher than the King of Prussia, an act that later was regarded as treason. For the historical context (in English) see Paret (1966).

  22. 22.

    He bases his verdict on J. Pöhler’s Bibliotheca historic-militaris. Leipzig, 1887–1897.

  23. 23.

    My gratitude for encouraging further work in this direction goes to the organisers and participants of the workshop “The Early Modern Ottoman Empire as Contact Zone” (June 10 and 11, 2010) at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton University, and to Peter Paret for the time he took to discuss aspects of my work.

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    Peter I. Trummer

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Trummer, P.I. (2012). Exporting Military Revolutions and the Changing Clausewitzian Triad between People, Armed Forces and Ruler at the Turn of the Nineteenth Century. In: Flüchter, A., Richter, S. (eds) Structures on the Move. Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-19288-3_10

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