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Surface and Interface Characterization

  • Chapter
Springer Handbook of Metrology and Testing

Part of the book series: Springer Handbooks ((SHB))

Abstract

While the bulk material properties treated in Part C of this handbook are obviously important, the surface characteristics of materials are also of great significance. They are responsible for the appearances of materials and surface phenomena, and they have a crucial influence on the interactions of materials with gases or fluids (in corrosion, for example; Chap. 12), contacting solids (as in friction and wear; Chap. 13) or biospecies (Chap. 14), and materials–environment interactions (Chap. 15). Surface and interface characterization have been important topics for very many years. Indeed, it was known in antiquity that impurities could be detrimental to the quality of metals, and that keying and contamination were important to adhesion in architecture and also in the fine arts. In contemporary technologies, surface modification or functional coatings are frequently used to tailor the processing of advanced materials. Some components, such as quantum-well devices and x-ray mirrors, are composed of multilayers with individual layer thicknesses in the low nanometer range. Quality assurance of industrial processes, as well as the development of advanced surface-modified or coated components, requires chemical information on material surfaces and (buried) interfaces with high sensitivity and high lateral and depth resolution. In this chapter we present the methods applicable to the chemical and physical characterization of surfaces and interfaces.

This chapter covers the three main techniques of surface chemical analysis: Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), which are all still rapidly developing in terms of instrumentation, standards, and applications. AES is excellent for elemental analysis at spatial resolutions down to 10 nm, and XPS can define chemical states down to 10 μm. Both analyze the outermost atom layers and, with sputter depth profiling, layers up to 1 μm thick.

Dynamic SIMS incorporates depth profiling and can detect atomic compositions significantly below 1 ppm. Static SIMS retains this high sensitivity for the surface atomic or molecular layer but provides chemistry-related details not available with AES or XPS. New reference data, measurement standards, and documentary standards from ISO will continue to be developed for surface chemical analysis over the coming years.

The chapter also discusses surface physical analysis (topography characterization), which encompasses measurement, visualization, and quantification. This is critical to both component form and surface finish at macro-, micro-, and nanoscales. The principal methods of surface topography measurement are stylus profilometry, optical scanning techniques, and scanning probe microscopy (SPM). These methods, based on acquiring topography data from point-by-point scans, give quantitative information on surface height with respect to position. The integral methods, which are based on a different approach, produce parameters that represent some average property of the surface under examination. Measurement methods, as well as their application and limitations, are briefly reviewed, including standardization and traceability issues.

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Abbreviations

AA:

arithmetic average

ACF:

autocorrelation function

ACVF:

autocovariance function

AES:

Auger electron spectroscopy

AFM:

atomic force microscope

AFM:

atomic force microscopy

AMRSF:

average matrix relative sensitivity factor

ASTM:

American Society for Testing and Materials

BCR:

Bureau Communautaire de Référence

CCD:

charge-coupled device

CLA:

center line average

CMM:

coordinate-measuring machine

CRM:

certified reference material

DC:

direct current

DFT:

discrete Fourier transform

DTU:

Danmarks Tekniske Universitet

EBS:

elastic backscattering spectrometry

EPMA:

electron probe microanalysis

FDA:

frequency-domain analysis

FL:

Fermi level

GIXRR:

grazing-incidence x-ray reflectance

HPLC:

high-performance liquid chromatography

IERF:

intensity–energy response function

IMFP:

inelastic mean free path

IPA:

isopropyl alcohol

ISO:

International Organization for Standardization

MEIS:

medium-energy ion scattering

NA:

numerical aperture

NIST:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

NPL:

National Physical Laboratory

NR:

natural rubber

NR:

neutron reflectance

NRA:

nuclear reaction analysis

PC:

personal computer

PC:

photoconductive detector

PC:

polycarbonate

PDMS:

poly(dimethylsiloxane)

PEELS:

parallel electron energy loss spectroscopy

PERSF:

pure element relative sensitivity factor

PET:

polyethylene terephthalate

PMMA:

poly(methyl methacrylate)

PSDF:

power spectral density function

PSI:

phase-shift interferometry

PTB:

Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt

PTFE:

polytetrafluoroethylene

PVC:

polyvinyl chloride

RBS:

Rutherford backscattering

RG:

renormalization group

RMS:

root mean square

RSF:

relative sensitivity factor

SEM:

scanning electron microscopy

SIMS:

secondary ion mass spectrometry

SNOM:

scanning near-field optical microscopy

SPM:

scanning probe microscopy

SPM:

self-phase modulation

SRM:

standard reference material

STM:

scanning tunneling microscopy

SWLI:

scanning white-light interferometry

TEM:

transmission electron microscopy

TOF:

time of flight

TR:

technical report

ULSI:

ultralarge-scale integration

XFL:

photoemitted Fermi level

XPS:

x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

XPS:

x-ray photoemission spectroscopy

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Analytical Science Division, National Physical Laboratory, Hampton Road, Middlesex, TW11 0LW, Teddington, UK

    Martin Seah Dr.

  2. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet, Building 425, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark

    Leonardo De Chiffre

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  1. Martin Seah Dr.
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Correspondence to Martin Seah Dr. or Leonardo De Chiffre .

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  1. University of Applied Sciences Berlin, Luxemburger Strasse 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany

    Horst Czichos Prof.

  2. National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS), Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan

    Tetsuya Saito

  3. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, MD, USA

    Leslie Smith

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Seah, M., Chiffre, L.D. (2011). Surface and Interface Characterization. In: Czichos, H., Saito, T., Smith, L. (eds) Springer Handbook of Metrology and Testing. Springer Handbooks. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-16641-9_6

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