Abstract
During its 24th session on December 1969, the United Nations General Assembly discussed the problem of “forcible diversion of civil aircraft” and adopted Resolution 2551 (XXIV), in which the General Assembly stated its deep concern over acts of unlawful interference with international civil aviation. The General Assembly also called upon States to take every appropriate measure to see that their respective national legislation provides an adequate framework for effective legal measures against all kinds of acts of unlawful seizure of civil aircraft. It furthermore called upon States to ensure that persons on board who perpetrate such acts are prosecuted. The General Assembly urged that States give their fullest support to the International Civil Aviation Organisation in its endeavours towards the speedy preparation and adoption of a convention which would provide for appropriate measures which would make the offence of unlawful seizure of aircraft punishable. The commission of the offence would lead to the prosecution of persons who commit it. By this resolution, the General Assembly also invited States to ratify and accede to the Convention on Offenses and Certain Other Acts Committed On Board Aircraft, signed in Tokyo on 14 September 1963.
Keywords
- Security Council
- Civil Aviation
- Universal Jurisdiction
- Hague Convention
- International Civil Aviation Organization
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- 1.
Resolution 2551 (XXIV). The Resolution was adopted by a vote of 77 in favour, 2 against with 17 abstentions.
- 2.
The Tokyo Convention will be discussed in some detail later.
- 3.
Resolution 2645 was adopted by 105 in favour, none against and 8 abstentions.
- 4.
A/RES/2645 (XXV) 30 November 1970. The Resolution was approved by the United Nations General Assembly on 25 November 1970 by a vote of 105 in favour, none against, and 8 abstentions.
- 5.
S/RES/286 (1976) 9 September 1970.
- 6.
A/RES/3034 (XXVII), 18 December 1972.
- 7.
A/RES/3034 (XXVII), 18 December 1972.
- 8.
A/RES/3034 (XXVII), 18 December 1972.
- 9.
A/RES/31/103, 21 January 1977.
- 10.
A/RES/34/145, 22 January 1980.
- 11.
A/RES/34/145, 22 January 1980.
- 12.
A/RES/40/61, 14 January 1986. Djonovich DJ (ed) United Nations Resolutions (7 Series), Volume XXIV, 1985–1986, at 507.
- 13.
A/RES/40/61, 14 January 1986. Djonovich DJ (ed) United Nations Resolutions (7 Series), Volume XXIV, 1985–1986, at 507.
- 14.
S/RES/579 (1985), 18 December 1985.
- 15.
A/RES/42/159, 7 December 1987.
- 16.
A/RES/42/159, 7 December 1987.
- 17.
A/RES/44/29, 4 December 1989.
- 18.
A/RES/44/29, 4 December 1989, Clause 9.
- 19.
A/RES/46/51, 9 December 1991, Clauses 1 and 8.
- 20.
A/RES/48/122, 20 December 1993, Clause 2.
- 21.
Opened for signature at Geneva on 16 November 1937. For the test see Hudson (1941, p. 862); U.N. Doc A/C.6/418 Annex 1, p. 1 (hereinafter 1937 U.N. Convention).
- 22.
McWhinney (1987, p. 128); see also, A.J.I.L., Vol. 68, (1974), p. 69.
- 23.
McWhinney (1987, p. 129).
- 24.
Convention on International Civil Aviation, opened for signature at Chicago on 7 December 1944, entered into force on 4 April 1947. ICAO Doc 7300/6 (hereinafter Chicago Convention of 1944).
- 25.
Chicago Convention of 1944, ICAO Doc 7300/6.
- 26.
McWhinney (1987, p. 131).
- 27.
Report of the Ad Hoc Group of Experts – Unlawful Interference, Montreal, ICAO Doc. AH-UI/2, 14–18 July 1986.
- 28.
Art. 3(a) of Chicago Convention of 1944, ICAO Doc 7300/6.
- 29.
Art. 3(a) of Chicago Convention of 1944, ICAO Doc 7300/6.
- 30.
Milde (1986, p. 122).
- 31.
Lauterpact (1950, p. 149).
- 32.
Vlasic (1982, p. 161).
- 33.
Art. 33 of the U.N. Charter.
- 34.
Kunz (1948, pp. 111, 115).
- 35.
Vlasic (1982, p. 275).
- 36.
Cited in Oppenheim (1958, p. 609).
- 37.
The Geneva Convention was opened for signature at Geneva on 16 November 1937. See Hudson (1941, p. 862), U.N. Doc. A/C.6/418, Annex 1, at 1.
- 38.
League of Nations, Official Journal, 1934, at 1839.
- 39.
Reiff (1959, p 6).
- 40.
Feller (1972, p. 212).
- 41.
Feller (1972, p. 212).
- 42.
INTERPOL had submitted to the Legal Committee of ICAO in 1977 that out of recorded hijackings up to that year, the percentage of instances of hijackings which were motivated politically was 6.2 at a ratio of 64:4. See ICAO Doc 8877-LC/161 at 132.
- 43.
Shubber (1973a, p. 226).
- 44.
Aircraft Hijacking, Harvard International Law Journal, Vol. 12 (1971) at 65.
- 45.
Van Panhuys (1970, p. 13).
- 46.
This Convention was opened for signature at Geneva on 16 November 1937. See Hudson (1941, p. 862). See also U.N Doc, A/C.6/418, Annex 1 at 1.
- 47.
See Sarkar (1972, p. 200).
- 48.
See International Legal Materials 1963, (II) at 1042.
- 49.
See Boyle (1964, pp. 305–328), for a detailed analysis of the Tokyo Convention.
- 50.
Report of the Sub-Committee, LC/SC “Legal Status,” WD No. 23, 10 October 1956.
- 51.
Boyle (1964, p. 320).
- 52.
Boyle (1964, p. 321).
- 53.
Boyle (1972, p. 463).
- 54.
Boyle (1972, p. 463).
- 55.
Abramovsky (1974, p. 89).
- 56.
Boyle (1972, p. 463).
- 57.
Boyle (1964, p. 329).
- 58.
Evans (1969, p. 708).
- 59.
Boyle (1964, p. 333).
- 60.
Boyle (1964, p. 331).
- 61.
Boyle (1964, p. 340).
- 62.
Boyle (1964, p. 340).
- 63.
See Articles 8 and 9 of the Tokyo Convention.
- 64.
See Articles 12 and 13 of the Tokyo Convention.
- 65.
Mendelsohn (1967, p. 515).
- 66.
Mendelsohn (1967, p. 514).
- 67.
Chung (1976, p. 150).
- 68.
Boyle (1964, p. 320).
- 69.
Article 13(1).
- 70.
Article 13(5).
- 71.
Article 13(2).
- 72.
Article 1(4).
- 73.
Civil Aviation Act 1982, Section 92.
- 74.
Article 1(3).
- 75.
Article 6(2).
- 76.
McNair, International Law Opinions, Cambridge University Press: 1856 at 224.
- 77.
Article 16(2).
- 78.
Air Navigation Order 1989, S.I. 1989 No. 2004 – Article 52.
- 79.
IATA General Conditions of Carriage (passenger and baggage), March 1988 – Article VIII.
- 80.
Feller (1972, p. 214).
- 81.
Chung (1976, p. 643).
- 82.
ICAO Doc 9050 LC/169-2 at 72.
- 83.
Mankiewicz (1971, p. 201).
- 84.
Boyle (1972, p. 473).
- 85.
Aviation Security Legislation, Aviation Security Legislation, Vol. 5, April 1973 at 307.
- 86.
Shubber (1973b, p. 725).
- 87.
See Mankiewicz (1971, p. 206).
- 88.
Abramovsky (1975a, p. 278).
- 89.
Article 2(b).
- 90.
Fitzgerald (1971, p. 71).
- 91.
Fitzgerald (1971, p. 67).
- 92.
Fitzgerald (1971, p. 68).
- 93.
Fitzgerald (1971, p. 68).
- 94.
Fitzgerald (1971, p. 68).
- 95.
Fitzgerald (1971, p. 68).
- 96.
Fitzgerald (1971, p. 70).
- 97.
Legal Committee, 18th Session, London, 29 September – 22 October, Vol. 1, Minutes, See ICAO Doc 8936 LC/164-1 at 39.
- 98.
See G.N. Horlick, Public and Private Responses to Aircraft Hijacking, 2 Vanderbilt Law Journal, 1976 at 21.
- 99.
G.F. Fitzgerald, International Terrorism and Civil Aviation, Unpublished Speech given to the Third Annual Conference of the Canadian Council of International Law, 2 October 1974.
- 100.
Hague Convention of 1970.
- 101.
Fitzgerald (1971, p. 73).
- 102.
Fitzgerald (1971, p. 75).
- 103.
Costello (1975, p. 488).
- 104.
Abramovsky (1975b, p. 300).
- 105.
See ICAO Doc A31-WP/26, LE/2, 4/7/95, at 11.
- 106.
See ICAO Doc A31-WP/26, LE/2, 4/7/95, at 11.
- 107.
Fingerman (1980, p. 142).
- 108.
ICAO Doc 9050-LC/169-1 at 41.
- 109.
ICAO Doc 9050-LC/169-1 at 10.
- 110.
ICAO Doc 9050-LC/169-1 at 41.
- 111.
Brosche (1974, p. 2).
- 112.
Fingerman (1980, p. 144).
- 113.
ICAO Doc 9050-LC/169-2 at 42.
- 114.
ICAO Doc 8936-LC/164-1 at 216.
- 115.
ICAO Doc 9050-LC/169-2 at 42.
- 116.
Schwenk (1979, p. 317).
- 117.
Article 4.
- 118.
Article 22.
- 119.
ICAO Doc 8936-LC/164-1 at 228.
- 120.
ICAO Doc 9050-LC/169-1 at 39.
- 121.
ICAO Doc 9571.
- 122.
For the thorough analysis of the history of the Convention see: Milde (1990, pp. 155–179).
- 123.
United Nations, Security Council, SC/RES/635 (1989).
- 124.
Doc 9551, A27-RES.
- 125.
Resolution 44/29 of 13 December 1989.
- 126.
C-DEC 127/20.
- 127.
AH-DE/3, Report, Restricted.
- 128.
The last preambular clause to the Convention explicitly confirms this by stating ‘Noting with satisfaction the role played by the Council of the International Civil Aviation Organization in the preparation of the Convention as well as its willingness to assume functions related to its implementation’ – See ICAO Doc 9571.
- 129.
Superfluous, because the Technical Annex to the Convention provides in: PART 1: DESCRIPTION OF EXPLOSIVES, a detailed definition of Plastic Explosives.
- 130.
Duly authorized military devices refers to: devices such as shells, bombs, projectiles, mines, missiles, rockets, shaped charges, grenades, etc.
- 131.
C-WP/9209, Restricted.
- 132.
The Ad Hoc Group of Specialists concluded after its 4th meeting, that all four additives which had been selected earlier, should be included in the Technical Annex. As the compounds meet the same criteria in respect of detectability and useability, their mutual inclusion may offer producer States some flexibility in selecting a particular additive.
- 133.
The Conference found an analogy with Article 56 of the Chicago Convention which deals with the composition of the Air Navigation Commission – the most important advisory body to the ICAO Council. Its present membership is limited to 15, but a decision was taken by the 27th ICAO Assembly to amend Article 56 in order to increase its membership to 19. The amendment will require 108 ratifications for its entry into force.
- 134.
Proposals by several Delegations to introduce in the Convention, expressis verbis, the possibility to amend the Convention itself were decided against by the Conference in the understanding that the main body of the Convention could be amended in the manner provided for and codified in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.
- 135.
An important decision. The effective detection of marked plastic explosives is of course as important as the marking itself, as the one would be completely useless without the other. As civil aviation security is by definition a global concept, mutual assistance and co-operation is a must.
- 136.
Final Act of the International Conference on Air Law held under the auspices of the International Civil Aviation Organization in February–March 1991. Adopted by the Conference on 1 March 1991.
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Abeyratne, R. (2010). The Unlawful Interference Conventions. In: Aviation Security Law. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-11703-9_5
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