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The International Framework for Countering Terrorism

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Human Rights in the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism

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Abstract

Chapter 2 considered the phenomenon of terrorism, having regard to popular and political perceptions of terrorist conduct, and the challenges facing the adoption by the international community of a universal, concise and comprehensive legal definition of the term. This chapter moves on to explore the international framework for the suppression of terrorism. The two principal sources of public international law are international conventions (treaties) and customary international law.1 The legal framework in the fight against international terrorism is almost entirely limited to international treaties and the binding and non-binding mechanisms that flow from these, including United Nations action under the Charter of the United Nations.2 There is some, albeit limited, overlap between treaty and customary law on the subject. The question of regional and other multilateral initiatives for countering terrorism is also considered briefly within this chapter.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Statute of the International Court of Justice 1948, article 38(1)(a) and (b).

  2. 2.

    Charter of the United Nations 1945.

  3. 3.

    UN Press Release, 19 September 2001.

  4. 4.

    Including, by way of illustration, the Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel (opened for signature 9 December 1994, 2051 UNTS 391, entered into force 15 January 1999), the Convention for the Reciprocal Recognition of Proof Marks on Small Arms (opened for signature 1 July 1969, 795 UNTS 248, entered into force 3 July 1971), the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction (opened for signature 10 April 1972, 1015 UNTS 168, entered into force 26 March 1975), Convention on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (opened for signature 1 July 1968, 729 UNTS 169, entered into force 5 March 1970), and the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction (opened for signature 13 January 1993, CD/CW/WP.400/Rev.1, entered into force 29 April 1997). The Terrorism Prevention Branch had itself identified a list of factors that require action in the elimination of terrorism. The list of factors alone ran to seven pages, as once available online: “Classification of Counter-Terrorism Measures”, online: http://www.odccp.org/terrorism_measures.html (as accessed 2 June 2002; copy on file with author). The United Nations’ publication, International Instruments related to the Prevention and Suppression of International Terrorism (New York, 2001) also lists the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and its two Additional Protocols of 1977: pp. iv–v.

  5. 5.

    Report to the Counter-Terrorism Committee pursuant to paragraph 6 of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) of 28 September 2001, New Zealand, UN Doc S/2001/1269, 4.

  6. 6.

    See the United Nations list of “International Instruments to Counter Terrorism”, online: http://untreaty.un.org/English/Terrorism.asp. Note also that the Security Council’s Counter-Terrorism Committee (see Sect. 3.2.4.1) now speaks of 16 conventions relating to terrorism, being the 13 conventions identified at Sect. 3.1.1 herein, plus three amending documents: Amendments to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, opened for signature 8 July 2005 (subject to ratification and not yet entered into force); Protocol to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, opened for signature14 October 2005 (subject to ratification and not yet entered into force); and Protocol to the Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf, opened for signature 14 October 2005 (subject to ratification and not yet entered into force). See also Greenwood (2002, p. 301).

  7. 7.

    Contrast this with the requirements of the Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives, discussed further within this part of the chapter.

  8. 8.

    Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft, opened for signature 14 September 1963, 704 UNTS 219 (entered into force 4 December 1969). There are currently 185 States parties to the Convention, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/law.shtml (as accessed on 1 October 2009).

  9. 9.

    Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, opened for signature 16 December 1970, 860 UNTS 105 (entered into force 14 October 1971). There are currently 184 States parties to the Convention, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/law.shtml (as accessed on 1 October 2009).

  10. 10.

    Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation, opened for signature 23 September 1971, 974 UNTS 177 (entered into force 26 January 1973). There are currently 187 States parties to the Convention, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/law.shtml (as accessed on 1 October 2009).

  11. 11.

    Protocol on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation, opened for signature 24 February 1988, ICAO Doc 9518 (entered into force 6 August 1989). There are currently 168 States parties to the Protocol, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/law.shtml (as accessed on 1 October 2009).

  12. 12.

    Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, opened for signature 10 March 1988, 1678 UNTS 221 (entered into force 1 March 1992). There are currently 154 States parties to the Convention, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/law.shtml (as accessed on 1 October 2009).

  13. 13.

    Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf, opened for signature 10 March 1988, 1678 UNTS 304 (entered into force 1 March 1992). There are currently 143 States parties to the Protocol, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/law.shtml (as accessed on 1 October 2009).

  14. 14.

    Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against International Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, opened for signature 14 December 1973, 1035 UNTS 167 (entered into force 20 February 1977). There are currently 172 States parties to the Convention, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/law.shtml (as accessed on 1 October 2009).

  15. 15.

    International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, opened for signature 18 December 1979, 1316 UNTS 205 (entered into force 3 June 1983). There are currently 167 States parties to the Convention, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/law.shtml (as accessed on 1 October 2009).

  16. 16.

    Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, opened for signature 3 March 1980, 1456 UNTS 124 (entered into force 8 February 1987). There are currently 141 States parties to the Convention, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/law.shtml (as accessed on 1 October 2009).

  17. 17.

    International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism, adopted by the General Assembly and opened for signature on 15 April 2005 under GA Res 59/290, UN GAOR, 59th Sess, 91st Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/59/290 (2005) and entered into force 7 July 2007. There are currently 54 States parties to the Convention, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/law.shtml (as accessed on 1 October 2009).

  18. 18.

    Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection, opened for signature 1 March 1991, ICAO Doc 9571 (entered into force 21 June 1998). There are currently 141 States parties to the Convention, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/law.shtml (as accessed on 1 October 2009).

  19. 19.

    International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombing, opened for signature 12 January 1998, 2149 UNTS 286 (entered into force 23 May 2001). There are currently 162 States parties to the Convention, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/law.shtml (as accessed on 1 October 2009).

  20. 20.

    International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, opened for signature 10 January 2000, 2179 UNTS 232 (entered into force 10 April 1992). There are currently 169 States parties to the Convention, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/law.shtml (as accessed on 1 October 2009).

  21. 21.

    Financial Action Task Force, FATF Special Recommendations on Terrorist Financing, 22 October 2004, online: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/8/17/34849466.pdf. See further: Radicati di Brozolo and Megliani (2004) and Pieth et al. (2009).

  22. 22.

    United Nations Secretary-General’s Report to the United Nations General Assembly, 56th General Assembly Meeting, GA/9914, 24 September 2001. For a more detailed discussion of the Draft Comprehensive Convention, see Andreu-Guzmán (2002, pp. 202–210).

  23. 23.

    Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, adopted under GA Res 49/60, UN GAOR, 49th Sess, 84th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/49/60 (1994).

  24. 24.

    Established under GA Res 51/210, UN GAOR, 51st Sess, 88th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/51/210 (1996).

  25. 25.

    Ibid, para 9.

  26. 26.

    Draft Comprehensive Convention, article 18. See further (infra) at Sect. 3.2.4.

  27. 27.

    See: GA Res 61/40, UN GAOR, 61st Sess, 64th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/61/40 (2007), para 22; GA Res 62/71, UN GAOR, 62nd Sess, 62nd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/62/71 (2008), para 21; and GA Res 63/129, UN GAOR, 63rd Sess, 61st Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/63/129 (2009), paras 21–22.

  28. 28.

    UN Counter-Terrorism Online Handbook, online: http://www.un.org/terrorism/cthandbook.

  29. 29.

    GA Res 3034 (XXVII), UN GAOR, 27th Sess, 2114th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/XXVII/3034 (1972).

  30. 30.

    GA Res 31/102, UN GAOR, 31st Sess, 99th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/31/102 (1976); GA Res 32/147, UN GAOR, 32nd Sess, 105th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/32/147 (1977); GA Res 34/145, UN GAOR, 34th Sess, 105th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/34/145 (1979); GA Res 36/109, UN GAOR, 36th Sess, 92nd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/36/109 (1981); GA Res 38/130, UN GAOR, 38th Sess, 101st Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/38/130(1983); GA Res 40/61, UN GAOR, 40th Sess, 108th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/40/61 (1985); GA Res 42/159, UN GAOR, 42nd Sess, 94th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/42/159 (1987); and GA Res 44/29, UN GAOR, 44th Sess, 72nd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/44/29 (1989).

  31. 31.

    Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism (n 23).

  32. 32.

    GA Res 51/210, UN GAOR, 51st Sess, 88th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/51/210 (1996) Annex.

  33. 33.

    GA Res 52/165, UN GAOR, 52nd Sess, 72nd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/52/165 (1997) para 7; GA Res 54/110, UN GAOR, 54th Sess, 75th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/54/110 (1999) para 8; GA Res 55/158, UN GAOR, 55th Sess, 84th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/55/158 (2000) para 9; GA Res 56/88, UN GAOR, 56th Sess, 85th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/56/88 (2001) para 10; GA Res 57/27, UN GAOR, 57th Sess, 52nd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/57/27 (2002) para 10; GA Res 58/81, UN GAOR, 58th Sess, 72nd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/58/81 (2003) para 10; GA Res 59/46, UN GAOR, 59th Sess, 65th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/59/46 (2004) para 12; GA Res 60/43, UN GAOR, 60th Sess, 61st Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/60/43 (2005) para 13; GA Res 60/288, UN GAOR, 60th Sess, 99th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/60/288 (2006), preambular para 3; GA Res 61/40 (n 27) para 15; GA Res 62/71 (n 27) para 15; and GA Res 63/129 (n 27), para 15.

  34. 34.

    Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism (n 23), as is evident through its preamble.

  35. 35.

    Ibid, para 2.

  36. 36.

    Ibid, para 1.

  37. 37.

    Ibid, para 6.

  38. 38.

    Ibid, para 4.

  39. 39.

    See, for example, Report of the Ad Hoc Committee Established by General Assembly Resolution 51/210 on a Draft Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism, UN Doc A/AC.252/2002/CPR.1 and Add.1 (2002).

  40. 40.

    United Nations Press Release, “Poverty Reduction, Terrorism, Disarmament, Humanitarian Relief Discussed as General Assembly Continues Review of Secretary-General Report”, from the 56th General Assembly Plenary Meeting, 25 September 2001, statement of Kamalesh Sharma, United Nations General Assembly representative for India.

  41. 41.

    General and Complete Disarmament, GA Res 56/24, UN GAOR, 56th Sess, 68th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/56/24 (2001) – see Part T “Multilateral Cooperation in the Area of Disarmament and Non-Proliferation and Global Efforts Against Terrorism”.

  42. 42.

    Concerning the Financing of Terrorism Convention, see GA Res 54/109, UN GAOR, 54th Sess, 76th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/54/109 (1999). Concerning the Nuclear Terrorism Convention, see GA Res 60/78, UN GAOR, 60th Sess, 61st Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/60/78 (2005), para 2; GA Res 61/86, UN GAOR 61st Sess, 67th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/61/86 (2006), para 2; GA Res 62/33, UN GAOR, 62nd Sess, 61st Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/62/33 (2007), para 2; and GA Res 62/46, UN GAOR, 62nd Sess, 61st Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/62/46 (2007), para 4.

  43. 43.

    GA Res 62/46 (ibid).

  44. 44.

    Strengthening international cooperation and technical assistance in promoting the implementation of the universal conventions and protocols related to terrorism within the framework of the activities of the Centre for International Crime Prevention, adopted under GA Res 58/136, UN GAOR, 58th Sess, 77th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/58/136 (2003). See also GA Res 62/172, UN GAOR, 62nd Sess, 77th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/62/172 (2007).

  45. 45.

    See, for example, SC Res 286, UN SCOR, 1552nd Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/286 (1970).

  46. 46.

    SC Res 731, UN SCOR, 3033rd Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/731 (1992), para 3; SC Res 748, UN SCOR, 3063rd Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/748 (1992), para 1; and SC Res 883, UN SCOR, 3312nd Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/883 (1993), para 1.

  47. 47.

    Case Concerning Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention Arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v United Kingdom and Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v United States of America), Jurisdiction (1998) ICJ Rep.

  48. 48.

    Ibid, paras 37 and 41.

  49. 49.

    International Court of Justice, “Cases Removed from the Court’s List at the Joint Request of the Parties”, Press Release 2003/29 (10 September 2003).

  50. 50.

    SC Res 1267, UN SCOR, 4051st Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1267 (1999).

  51. 51.

    Ibid, preambular paras 6–7.

  52. 52.

    Ibid, para 6.

  53. 53.

    SC Res 1368, UN SCOR, 4370th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1368 (2001).

  54. 54.

    Ibid, para 3.

  55. 55.

    SC Res 1373, UN SCOR, 4385th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1373 (2001).

  56. 56.

    Rowe (2002). Richard Rowe at that time worked in the International Organisations and Legal Division of the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. He was the Australian representative and Vice-Chairman of the Ad Hoc Committee Established by General Assembly Resolution 51/210 during its Sixth Session, which followed the September 11 attacks.

  57. 57.

    SC Res 1373 (n 55) para 3.

  58. 58.

    SC Res 1189, UN SCOR, 3915th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1189 (1998), para 5.

  59. 59.

    SC Res 1269, UN SCOR, 4053rd Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1269 (1999).

  60. 60.

    SC Res 1269 (n 59) para 4 (second unnumbered subparagraph).

  61. 61.

    SC Res 1269 (n 59) para 4 (third unnumbered subparagraph).

  62. 62.

    SC Res 1456, UN SCOR, 4688th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1456 (2003).

  63. 63.

    Ibid, para 4.

  64. 64.

    See, for example, Szasz (2002, p. 901).

  65. 65.

    Note that these paragraphs are also reflected within resolutions of the General Assembly, although such resolutions are expressly not binding by virtue of article 10 of the Charter of the United Nations. See GA Res 56/88 (n 33) para 7; GA Res 57/27 (n 33) para 7; GA Res 58/81 (n 33) para 7; and GA Res 59/46 (n 33) para 9.

  66. 66.

    For a tabulated break-down of the party status of each of the Commonwealth case study countries, see Appendix 2 herein.

  67. 67.

    Report to the Counter-Terrorism Committee pursuant to paragraph 6 of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) of 28 September 2001, New Zealand, 2 January 2002, S/2001/1269, 16. This report predates United Nations Security Council Resolution 1456 by approximately 12 months.

  68. 68.

    SC Res 1624, UN SCOR, 5261st Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1624 (2005).

  69. 69.

    Ibid, para 5.

  70. 70.

    See further the report of the Counter-Terrorism Committee to the Security Council on the implementation of resolution 1624 (2005), UN Doc S/2006/737 (2006).

  71. 71.

    Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South-West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276, Advisory Opinion (1971) ICJ Rep 16.

  72. 72.

    Ibid, 53.

  73. 73.

    SC Res 1735, UN SCOR, 5609th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1735 (2006); SC Res 1805, UN SCOR, 5856th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1805 (2008); and SC Res 1810, UN SCOR, 5877th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1810 (2008). See also Joint intervention on the cooperation between the Al-Qa’ida and Taliban Sanctions Committee, the Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC) and the Committee established pursuant to resolution 1540 (2004) (6 May 2008, copy on file with author). For a general overview of the role of the Security Council’s committees, see Mammen (2005).

  74. 74.

    SC Res 1535, UN SCOR, 4936th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1535 (2004), para 2.

  75. 75.

    A very useful web site has been established by the Counter-Terrorism Committee, explaining the mandate, practices and assistance programme of the Committee and containing State reports to the Committee and other useful documents and papers, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc.

  76. 76.

    On the question of the role of human rights in the review by the Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee of State reports, see the report of the UN Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights while countering terrorism, Martin Scheinin, The Protection and Promotion of Human Rights While Countering Terrorism, UN Doc E/CN.4/2006/098 (2005), Chapter IV. See also GA Res 62/272, UN GAOR, 62nd Sess, 120th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/62/272 (2008), para 7, which calls on UN entities involved in supporting counter-terrorism efforts to facilitate the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism.

  77. 77.

    See SC Res 1452, UN SCOR, 4678th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1452 (2002), and SC Res 1455, UN SCOR, 4686th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1455 (2003). The latter resolution also concerns itself with further reporting by States to the Counter-Terrorism Committee. For an overview of this function, see Rosand (2003, pp. 335–336).

  78. 78.

    SC Res 1624 (n 68), UN SCOR, 5261st Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1624 (2005), para 5.

  79. 79.

    Report of Australia to the Counter-Terrorism Committee pursuant to paragraph 6 of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) of 28 September 2001, UN Doc S/2001/1247 (2002); Supplement to first report of Australia to the Counter-Terrorism Committee pursuant to paragraph 6 of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) of 28 September 2001, UN Doc S/2002/776 (2002); Supplement to second report of Australia to the Counter-Terrorism Committee pursuant to paragraph 6 of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) of 28 September 2001, UN Doc S/2003/513 (2003); Fourth Report to the UN Counter-Terrorism Committee, Australia, UN Doc S/2003/1204 (2003); Fifth Report to the Counter-Terrorism Committee, Australia, UN Doc S/2005/90 (2005); and Sixth Report to the Counter-Terrorism Committee, Australia, UN Doc S/2005/671 (2005).

  80. 80.

    Report of the Government of Canada to the Counter-Terrorism Committee of the United Nations Security Council on measures taken to implement resolution 1373 (2001), UN Doc S/2001/1209 (2001); Report of the Government of Canada to the Counter-Terrorism Committee of the Security Council in response to the letter of the Chairman of the Committee dated 7 March 2002, UN Doc S/2002/667 (2002); Letter dated 18 February 2003 from the Permanent Representative of Canada to the United Nations addressed to the Chairman of the Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1373 (2001) concerning counter-terrorism, UN Doc S/2003/403 (2003); Implementation of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373 Canada’s Fourth Report to the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee, UN Doc S/2004/132 (2004); and Enclosure to Note Verbale dated 20 March 2006 from the Permanent Mission of Canada to the United Nations addressed to the Chairman of the Counter-Terrorism Committee, UN Doc S/2006/185 (2006).

  81. 81.

    Report to the Counter-Terrorism Committee pursuant to paragraph 6 of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) of 28 September 2001, New Zealand, UN Doc S/2001/1269 (2002); Supplementary report providing additional information on the measures taken by New Zealand to implement the provisions of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001), UN Doc S/2002/795 (2002); New Zealand response to the questions and comments of the Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee contained in the Chairman’s letter of 30 May 2003, UN Doc S/2003/860 (2003); New Zealand response to the United Nations Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee questions for response by 30 April 2004, UN Doc S/2004/359 (2004); and New Zealand national report to the United Nations Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee, UN Doc S/2006/384 (2006).

  82. 82.

    The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Report to the Counter-Terrorism Committee pursuant to paragraph 6 of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) of 28 September 2001, UN Doc S/2001/1232 (2001); The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland: second report to the Counter-Terrorism Committee pursuant to paragraph 6 of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) of 28 September 2001, UN Doc S/2002/787 (2002); Third report of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to the Counter-Terrorism Committee pursuant to paragraph 6 of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) of 28 September 2001, UN Doc S/2003/264 (2003); Fourth report of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to the Counter-Terrorism Committee pursuant to paragraph 6 of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) of 28 September 2001, UN Doc S/2004/157 (2004); Letter dated 7 September 2005 from the Permanent Representative of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to the United Nations addressed to the Chairman of the Counter-Terrorism Committee, UN Doc S/2005/583 (2005); and Implementation of Security Council resolution 1624 (2005): report of the United Kingdom in response to the Counter-Terrorism Committee’s questions, UN Doc S/2006/398 (2006).

  83. 83.

    SC Res 1805 (n 73), para 8.

  84. 84.

    Survey of the implementation of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001): Report of the Counter-Terrorism Committee, UN Doc S/2008/379 (2008).

  85. 85.

    Ibid, paras 133–139.

  86. 86.

    SC Res 1377, UN SCOR, 4413rd Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1377 (2001).

  87. 87.

    United Nations CTED Technical Assistance Matrix, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/htdocs/index.html.

  88. 88.

    See also SC Res 1456, UN SCOR, 4688th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1456 (2003), para 4(iii).

  89. 89.

    United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373 (2001) Directory of International Best Practices, Codes and Standards, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/bestpractices/best_prac.html.

  90. 90.

    SC Res 1267 (n 50).

  91. 91.

    Including: SC Res 1333, UN SCOR, 4251st Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/4251 (2000); SC res 1390, UN SCOR, 4452nd Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1390 (2002); SC Res 1455 (n 77); 1526, UN SCOR, 4908th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1526 (2004); SC Res 1617, UN SCOR, 5244th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1617 (2005); and SC Res 1735 (n 73).

  92. 92.

    See The Consolidated List established and maintained by the 1267 Committee with respect to Al-Qa’ida, Usama bin Laden, and the Taliban and other individuals, groups, undertakings and entities associated with them, online: http://www.un.org/sc/committees/1267/consolist.shtml.

  93. 93.

    SC Res 1540, UN SCOR, 4956th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1540 (2004).

  94. 94.

    Report of the Committee established pursuant to resolution 1540 (2004), UN Doc S/2006/257 (2006); and Report of the Committee established pursuant to resolution 1540 (2004), UN Doc S/2008/493 (2008).

  95. 95.

    Security Council committee established pursuant to resolution 1540 (2004), List of legislative documents by submitting UN Member States, online: http://www.un.org/sc/1540/legisdocuments.shtml.

  96. 96.

    SC Res 1566, UN SCOR, 5053rd Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1566 (2004), paras 9 and 10.

  97. 97.

    Report of the Security Council working group established pursuant to resolution 1566 (2004), UN Doc S/2005/789 (2005), paras 5, 7 and 9.

  98. 98.

    Ibid, paras11, and 16–30.

  99. 99.

    Ibid, paras11, 31 and 32.

  100. 100.

    Ibid, paras 11, 33 and 34.

  101. 101.

    GA Res 62/272 (n 76), para 11.

  102. 102.

    For further information on the Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force, see UN Action to Counter Terrorism, “Coordinating counter-terrorism actions within and beyond the UN system”, online: http://www.un.org/terrorism/cttaskforce.shtml.

  103. 103.

    UN Counter-Terrorism Online handbook, online: http://www.un.org/terrorism/cthandbook.

  104. 104.

    Report of the Secretary-General, United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy: activities of the United Nations system in implementing the Strategy, UN Doc A/62/898 (2008), Annex.

  105. 105.

    Report of the Secretary-General, Uniting Against Terrorism: Recommendations for a Global Counter-terrorism Strategy, UN Doc A/60/825 (2006), para 5. See also Part VI of the Report.

  106. 106.

    United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, GA Res 60/288 (n 33), preambular paragraphs. See Chap. 23 herein. The Global Strategy has been reaffirmed in GA Res 61/40 (n 27) preambular para 2; and GA Res 62/71 (n 27) preambular para 2.

  107. 107.

    Ibid, preamble to Pillar I.

  108. 108.

    Ibid, substantive para 3(e).

  109. 109.

    Ibid, Pillar I, para 8.

  110. 110.

    Ibid, Pillar II, para 11.

  111. 111.

    Center on Global Counterterrorism Cooperation, Civil Society and the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy: Opportunities and Challenges (September 2008), online: http://www.globalct.org/images/content/pdf/reports/civil_society.pdf, p. 3.

  112. 112.

    GA Res 60/288 (n 33), para 3(b).

  113. 113.

    UN Secretary-General 2008 report (n 104). The Strategy was reaffirmed in GA Res 62/272 (n 76), preambular para 1, and substantive para 2.

  114. 114.

    GA Res 62/272 (n 76), preambular para 8, and substantive para 11.

  115. 115.

    Ibid, paras 13 and 14.

  116. 116.

    United Nations Foundation, “Spanish Diplomat Blames Nations for ‘Lack of Effort’ on Terrorism”, UN Wire, 12 March 2004, previously available online: http://www.unwire.org/UNWire (copy held on file by author).

  117. 117.

    United Nations Foundation, “Counterterrorism Cooperation Improving, Security Council Told”, UN Wire, 20 July 2004, previously available online: http://www.unwire.org/UNWire (copy held on file by author).

  118. 118.

    On the subject of the increased role of the Terrorism Prevention Branch since September 11, see the report of the UN Secretary-General, Strengthening the Terrorism Prevention Branch of the Secretariat, UN Doc A/57/152/Add.1 (2002).

  119. 119.

    This work is also called upon by the General Assembly, including in: GA Res 61/40 (n 27) para 18; and GA Res 62/71 (n 27) para 18. See also GA Res 62/172, UN GAOR, 62nd Sess, 77th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/62/172 (2008), preambular para 6, and operative para 1.

  120. 120.

    Available online: http://www.unodc.org/pdf/terrorism/TATs/en/2LIGen.pdf.

  121. 121.

    Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, opened for signature 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 32 (entered into force 21 October 1950); Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, opened for signature 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 85 (entered into force 21 October 1950); Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, opened for signature 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 136 (entered into force 21 October 1950); and the Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, opened for signature 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 288 (entered into force 21 October 1950).

  122. 122.

    Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, opened for signature 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 4 (entered into force 7 December 1978).

  123. 123.

    Brownlie (2003, pp. 6–9).

  124. 124.

    See, for example, the judgment of the International Court of Justice in the Asylum Case (Colombia v Peru) (1950) ICJ Reports 266, 276–277.

  125. 125.

    See, for example, the judgment of the International Court of Justice in the Fisheries Jurisdiction Case (United Kingdom v Iceland) (1974) ICJ Reports 3, 23–26.

  126. 126.

    Although it should be said that if the other two aspects of consistency and generality are found in strong measure, the requirement for duration is not as important: see North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany v Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany v The Netherlands) (1969) ICJ Reports 3, para 74.

  127. 127.

    See, for example, the Lotus Case, Permanent Court of International Justice, Ser. A, no. 10, 28, and the North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (ibid) para 71.

  128. 128.

    See the Counter-Terrorism Committee’s survey of the implementation of Security Council resolution 1373 (n 84). State reports to the Committee are available online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/countryreports.shtml.

  129. 129.

    Take for example, Fiji, who reported to the Committee in 2002 and 2003, but only announced in 2004 that it was preparing counter-terrorism legislation: see Report of the Government of Fiji pursuant to paragraph 6 of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) of 28 September 2001, 4 June 2002, S/2002/616, and Fiji’s second round of responses based on the letter dated 8 August 2002, 25 April 2003, S/2003/481; and compare with Shameem (2004).

  130. 130.

    See, for example, the discussion by Graham (2005, pp. 49–52).

  131. 131.

    Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering, Special Recommendations on Terrorist Financing, online: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/8/17/34849466.pdf.

  132. 132.

    Council of the European Union, The European Union Counter-Terrorism Strategy, EU Doc 14469/4/05 REV4 (2005). For further information on the work of the European Union in this area, including the role of institutions and bodies within the EU, see site of the EU Justice and Home Affairs Council http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/terrorism/fsj_terrorism_intro_en.htm.

  133. 133.

    Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism, opened for signature 16 May 2005, CETS No 196 (entered into force 1 June 2007); European Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism, opened for signature 27 January 1977, CETS No 090 (entered into force 4 August 1978). Work is currently being undertaken to update and modify this treaty, under the Protocol amending the European Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism, opened for signature 15 May 2003, CETS No 190 (not yet in force); and Council of Europe Convention on Laundering, Search, Seizure and Confiscation of the Proceeds from Crime and on the Financing of Terrorism, opened for signature 16 May 2005, CETS No 198 (entered into force 1 May 2008). For a full list of European instruments and standards on combating terrorism, see Council of Europe, The Fight Against Terrorism. Council of Europe standards, (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 3rd edition, 2005). The United Nations’ publication, International Instruments related to the Prevention and Suppression of International Terrorism (New York, 2001) lists the following additional regional instruments: Organisation of American States (OAS) Convention to Prevent and Punish the Acts of Terrorism Taking the Form of Crimes Against Persons and Related Extortion that are of International Significance, opened for signature 2 February 1971, 1428 UNTS (entered into force 16 October 1973); States of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism, opened for signature 4 November 1987 (entered into force 22 August 1988); Arab Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism, opened for signature 22 April 1998 (entered into force 7 May 1999); Treaty on Cooperation among the States Members of the Commonwealth of Independent States in Combating Terrorism, opened for signature 4 June 1999 (entered into force 4 June 1999, in accordance with article 22); Convention of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference on Combating International Terrorism, opened for signature 1 July 1999 (not yet entered into force); and Organisation of African Unity (OUA) Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism, opened for signature 14 July 1999 (entered into force 6 December 2002).

  134. 134.

    OSCE Secretariat – Action against Terrorism unite, online: http://www.osce.org/atu/13054.html.

  135. 135.

    OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, Countering Terrorism, Protecting Human Rights: A Manual (Warsaw, 2007), available online: http://www.osce.org/publications/odihr/2007/11/28294_980_en.pdf.

  136. 136.

    NATO and the fight against terrorism, 21 August 2008 online: http://www.nato.int/issues/terrorism/index.html.

  137. 137.

    Inter-American Convention against Terrorism, opened for signature 6 March 2002, OAS Treaty A-66 (entered into force 7 October 2003).

  138. 138.

    Thirty-Third Pacific Islands Forum, Suva, Fiji Islands, 15–17 August 2002, Forum Communiqué, Annex 1, Nasonini Declaration on Regional Security. See, more generally, the report of the Center on Global Counterterrorism Cooperation, Implementing the United Nations General Assembly’s Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy in the Asia-Pacific (New York: 2005).

  139. 139.

    Ibid, paras 5 and 9.

  140. 140.

    Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, APEC Leaders’ Statement on Counter-Terrorism, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China, 21 October 2001.

  141. 141.

    Ibid, paras 1, 2 and 6.

  142. 142.

    APEC Counter Terrorism Task Force, “Counter Terrorism”, online: http://www.apec.org/apec/apec_groups/som_special_task_groups/counter_terrorism.html.

  143. 143.

    For recent UN resolutions on the subject, see: GA Res 61/74, UN GAOR, 61st Sess, 67th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/61/74 (2007); GA Res 61/83, UN GAOR, 61st Sess, 67th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/61/83 (2007); GA Res 61/86, UN GAOR, 61st Sess, 67th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/61/86 (2007); GA Res 62/24, UN GAOR, 62nd Sess, 61st Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/62/24 (2008); GA Res 62/33, UN GAOR, 62nd Sess, 61st Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/62/33 (2008); GA Res 62/37, UN GAOR, 62nd Sess, 61st Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/62/37 (2008); GA Res 62/39, UN GAOR, 62nd Sess, 61st Plen Mtg, UN Doc 62/39 (2008); GA Res 62/46, UN GAOR, 62nd Sess, 61st Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/62/46 (2008); GA Res 62/51, UN GAOR, 62nd Sess, 61st Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/62/51 (2008); GA Res 63/60, UN GAOR, 63rd Sess, 61st Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/63/60 (2009); SC Res 1673 (2006), UN SCOR, 5429th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1673 (2006); SC Res 1810, UN SCOR, 5877th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1810 (2008); and SC Res 1887 (2009), UN SCOR, 6191st Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1887 (2009).

  144. 144.

    Proliferation Security Initiative: Statement of Interdiction Principles, Adopted in Paris, 4 September 2003 (para 4), online: http://www.proliferationsecurity.info/principles.html.

  145. 145.

    SC Res 1540 (2004) (n 93), para 8(c), and SC Res 1673 (2006), UN SCOR, 5429th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1673 (2006).

  146. 146.

    See the Proliferation Security Initiative website, hosted by the Government of Canada: http://www.proliferationsecurity.info/introduction.html.

  147. 147.

    For further analysis of the Initiative, see: Byers (2004, p. 526); Shulman (2006, p. 771); Valencia (2005, p. 66); and von Heinegg (2002). For further background information, see also Allison (2004, p. 64).

  148. 148.

    United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, opened for signature 10 December 1982, 1833 UNTS 3 (entered into force 16 November 1994).

  149. 149.

    It is beyond the contemplation of this chapter to examine these arguments, but see further Byers (2004) and Shulman (2006).

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Conte, A. (2010). The International Framework for Countering Terrorism. In: Human Rights in the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-11608-7_3

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