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The Nature and Definition of Terrorism

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Human Rights in the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism

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Abstract

International terrorism is not a new phenomenon. Indeed, the origin of the word ‘terrorism’ dates back to the French Revolution of 1789 as the label used by the establishment to describe the conduct of revolutionaries.1 Terrorism has likewise been a subject of concern for the United Nations since the 1960s, following a series of aircraft hijackings. Some would argue that terrorism has entered a new phase at around the time of 11 September 2001: an age where transnational activity has intensified and become easier, and where technology and the media can be taken advantage of by terrorist entities to further the impact of terrorist conduct and the delivery of messages or fear-inducing images.2

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Berg (2004) and Stephens (2004, p. 457).

  2. 2.

    Ibid.

  3. 3.

    This list is maintained by the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation and may be accessed online: http://www.fbi.gov/wanted/terrorists/fugitives.htm.

  4. 4.

    Associated Press, “Timeline: Yasser Arafat”, Foxnews.com US and the World, 8 February 2005, online: http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,136880,00.html.

  5. 5.

    New Zealand, “Counter-Terrorism Bill. Government Bill. Commentary”, as reported from the Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade Committee (2003) 2. See also Palmer (2002); Bassiouni (1981, p. 11); Roach (2002, pp. 124–126); Roach (2005, p. 512); and the report of the Independent Reviewer Lord Carlile of Berriew QC, The Definition of Terrorism (Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for the Home Department, March 2007), para 22 (proposition 1).

  6. 6.

    Ganor (2005, pp. 8–9).

  7. 7.

    It must be acknowledged that, for the reasons that follow in this chapter (concerning the lack of a common definition of terrorism), this practical advantage is currently limited. On the subject of mutual legal assistance and extradition in the context of counter-terrorism, see Duffy (2005, pp. 106–115). See also the discussion on the Lockerbie Cases in Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.2.1.

  8. 8.

    Jenkins (1999, p. xii).

  9. 9.

    Barzilai (2000).

  10. 10.

    Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, Martin Scheinin, Mission to Israel, including visit to occupied Palestinian Territory, UN Doc A/HRC/6/17/Add.4 (2007), para 5.

  11. 11.

    United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, UN GAOR, 60th Sess, 99th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/60/288 (2006), Pillar I, preambular para.

  12. 12.

    Ilan (2005).

  13. 13.

    As identified in a statement by Dr Ismail Radwan, Sheik of the Ajlin Mosque in the Gaza Strip entitled “Paradise”, uncovered by intelligence agencies and aired on Israeli television in 2005.

  14. 14.

    Ibid.

  15. 15.

    As called for in the World Islamic Front’s “Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders”, 23 February 1998 (signed, amongst others, by Usama bin Laden), online: http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/980223-fatwa.htm.

  16. 16.

    Such assertions were made, for example, in numerous submissions to the New Zealand Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade Committee on the Terrorism Suppression Bill (NZ). See, amongst others, the submissions of the Socialist Party of Aotearoa, 31 November 2001, Parliamentary Library Ref TERRO/61. In the context of Al-Qa’ida, see Meltzer (2002).

  17. 17.

    See, for example, Ganor (2000).

  18. 18.

    GA Res 3034 (XXVII), UN GAOR, 27th Sess, 2114th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/27/3034 (1972), para 3.

  19. 19.

    The Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States was adopted by the General Assembly in GA Res 2625(XXV), UN GAOR 25th Sess, 1883rd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/25/2625 (1970). The further qualification was first added by GA Res 38/130, UN GAOR, 38th Sess, 101st Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/38/130 (1983), preambular para 6, and reiterated within: GA Res 40/61, UN GAOR, 40th Sess, 108th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/40/61 (1985), preambular para 8; GA Re 42/159, UN GAOR, 42nd Sess, 94th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/42/159 (1987), preambular para 12; GA Res 44/29, UN GAOR, 44th Sess, 72nd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/44/29 (1989), preambular para 17; and GA Res 46/51, UN GAOR, 46th Sess, 67th Plen Mtg, UN DocA/Res/46/51 (1991), preambular para 14.

  20. 20.

    As defined by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Final Report and Recommendations of the International Meeting of Experts on the further Study of the Concept of the Right of People, UNESCO Archives Doc SHS-89/CONF.602/7 (1990), para 22.

  21. 21.

    Western Sahara, Advisory Opinion (1975) ICJ Reports, 31.

  22. 22.

    Including: the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, opened for signature 16 December 1966, 993 UNTS 3 (entered into force 3 January 1976) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, opened for signature 16 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171 (entered into force 23 March 1976), common article 1; the Charter of the United Nations 1945, articles 1(2), 55 and 56, and chapter IX; the Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations (n 19); the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, adopted under GA Res 1514(XV), UN GAOR, 15th Sess, 847th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/15/1514 (1960); and the Principles which should guide members in determining whether or not an obligation exists to transmit the information called for under article 73e of the Charter adopted under GA Res 1541(XV), UN GAOR, 15th Sess, 948th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/15/1541 (1960).

  23. 23.

    Report of the Sub-Commission Special Rapporteur on terrorism and human rights, Specific Human Rights Issues: New priorities, in particular terrorism and counter-terrorism, UN Doc E/CN.4/Sub.2/2004/40 (2004), para 30. See also the Rapporteur’s 1997 report, UN Doc E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/28.

  24. 24.

    Sub-Commission Special Rapporteur 2004 report (ibid) para 28.

  25. 25.

    Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, adopted under GA Res 49/60, UN GAOR, 49th Sess, 84th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/49/60 (1994), para 1.

  26. 26.

    Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, Mission to Spain, UN Doc A/HRC/10/3/Add.2 (2008), paras 3, 46 and 47. See also Scheinin (2006).

  27. 27.

    Salem Almakhi, “Mending the Hearts of the Believers”, online: http://www.jihadonline.bravepages.com/mending.htm. Salem Almakhi is said to be one of Usama bin Laden’s supporters and admirers, and personally knowledgeable of Al-Qa’ida operations: see Fighel and Kehati (2002, un-numbered para 23).

  28. 28.

    Peter Gelling, “Indonesia Television Airs Terror Warning” (International Herald Tribune, 17 November 2005), online: http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/11/17/news/indo.php.

  29. 29.

    Secessionist-motivated terrorist organisations, for example, are local to a particular State and often bear the racial and religious characteristics of that State. Such organisations are capable of undertaking, and have undertaken, transnational acts of terrorism.

  30. 30.

    See Palbir Punj, “Root of Islamic Radicalism” (The Pioneer, 31 August 2005), online: http://dailypioneer.com/columnist1.asp?main_variable=Columnist&file_name=punj%2Fpunj66.txt&writer=punj. See also; Juergensmeyer (2003); Khan (2006); Rosand (2007, pp. 4–5); Saggerman (2004); and Shay (2002). Contrast with Rehman (2005).

  31. 31.

    Following Mohammad’s flight from Mecca, where his teachings had been rejected, he settled in Medina (the second most holy site for Muslims, after Mecca and before Jerusalem) where Islam was accepted by the community and from where it grew.

  32. 32.

    See Wuthnow (1998, pp. 383–393). See also Abu-Rabi (1995).

  33. 33.

    Ali was a cousin of Muhammad who was an early convert to Islam at the age of 10, and became the husband of Muhammad’s daughter Fatimah. Sunni Muslims consider Ali to be a companion of Muhammad only and therefore consider Shi’ite Muslims to be following a false prophet.

  34. 34.

    These schools were named after their four founders Abu Hanifa, Abu Abdullah, Mohammad bin Idris, Ahmad bin Hanbal respectively.

  35. 35.

    Surah (chapter) 110, “Al-Kafirun” (The Disbelievers), Ayat (verses) 4–6: The Noble Qur’an in the English Language (Saudi Arabia, Darussalam, 1996) 788.

  36. 36.

    Wuthnow (1998, pp. 383–393).

  37. 37.

    The International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism has written much on this subject. See, for example (available online: http://www.ict.org.il): Fighel and Shahar (2002), Shahar (2002), Kahati (2003), and Kahati and Fighel (2003).

  38. 38.

    World Islamic Front, Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders (published in the Arabic Newspaper Al-Quds al-Arabi [London, 23 February 1998], p. 3), un-numbered para 1. An English translation of the statement can be found online at http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/980223-fatwa.htm.

  39. 39.

    The quoted phrase is taken from The Holy Qura’an (n 35) 9:5.

  40. 40.

    Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders (n 38) un-numbered para 8.

  41. 41.

    Ibid, un-numbered para 3.

  42. 42.

    Ibid, un-numbered para 23.

  43. 43.

    Concerning the Security Council resolution 1267 (1999) Sanctions Committee see Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.4.2.

  44. 44.

    Salem Almakhi (n 27) penultimate paragraph.

  45. 45.

    Aljazeera, “New Al-Qaeda Tape Calls for Attacks” (Aljazeera.net, 21 May 2003), online: http://english.aljazeera.net/archive/2003/05/200849135715154191.html.

  46. 46.

    Al-Muhajabah, “Some Quranic Versus on Jihad”, online: http://www.muhajabah.com/quran-jihad.htm.

  47. 47.

    Surah (chapter) 22, “Al-Hajj” (The Pilgrimage), Ayat (verse) 39: The Qur’an (n 34) 426.

  48. 48.

    Surah 4, “An-Nisa” (The Women), Ayat 75: The Qur’an (ibid) 124.

  49. 49.

    Surah 60, “Al-Mumtahinah” (The Woman to be Examined), Ayat 8–9: The Qur’an (ibid) 700.

  50. 50.

    Contrary to the more moderate schools of Islam, the Hanbali school of Sunni Islam prohibits all forms of public religious expression other than that of those who follow the Hanbali school. The government of Saudi Arabia vigorously enforces this school of Islam, for example, and allows judges to discount the testimony of people who are not practicing Muslims or who do not have the correct faith: see GlobalSecurity.org, “Hanbali Islam”, online: http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-hanbali.htm.

  51. 51.

    Interview with Yoni Fighel, Researcher at the International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 31 August 2005, Herzlyia, Israel.

  52. 52.

    As explicitly recognised within various resolutions of the United Nations General Assembly, including GA Res 54/164, UN GAOR, 54th Sess, 83rd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/54/164 (1999). On the impact of terrorism upon the rule of law and human rights see Chap. 13.

  53. 53.

    See, for example, the Report of the Secretary-General’s High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility, UN Doc A/59/565 (2004), para 145.

  54. 54.

    For more discussion on this point, see Ganor (2000).

  55. 55.

    By way of example, India’s Prevention of Terrorism Act 2002 describes a terrorist act as one including conduct by a person “with intent to threaten the unity, integrity, security or sovereignty of India” (section 3(1)(a) of the Act).

  56. 56.

    See Appendix A “Background Information on Designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations” in Howard and Sawyer (2003, p. 507).

  57. 57.

    Ibid, 514.

  58. 58.

    Ibid, 516.

  59. 59.

    Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly under GA Res 60/288, UN GAOR, 60th Sess, 99th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/60/288 (2006).

  60. 60.

    United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, “UN Action Against Terrorism”, online: http://www.odccp.org/terrorism.html (as accessed 19 June 2002; copy on file with the author).

  61. 61.

    Ganor (1999).

  62. 62.

    By application of the legal principle pacta tertii nec nocent nec prosunt (treaties are not binding upon States unless their consent to be bound has been signified) – as reflected within article 34 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, opened for signature 23 May 1969, 1155 UNTS 331 (entered into force 27 January 1980).

  63. 63.

    Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, opened for signature 17 July 1998, 2187 UNTS 90 (entered into force 1 July 2002).

  64. 64.

    There are arguments, however, that terrorist acts fall within the jurisdiction of the Court as constituting crimes against humanity (crimes under article 7 of the Rome Statute).

  65. 65.

    Having said this, the lack of definition was most likely due to the fact (as will be seen through subsequent discussions) that there is a lack of consensus on just what amounts to terrorism. In a desire to issue a forceful, and at the same time early, resolution in the wake of September 11 it is likely that the Council saw use of the term, without definition, as the only viable option in the short term. The problem with this approach is that it has left the question of defining the term with individual member States, leading to inconsistent definitions and, arguably, a weak rather than forceful resolution.

  66. 66.

    For an overview, see Golder and Williams (2004, pp. 273–275). See also Saul (2006).

  67. 67.

    As recorded by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime on its website, “Definitions of Terrorism”, online: http://www.odccp.org/terrorism_definitions.html (as accessed 19 June 2002; copy on file with the author).

  68. 68.

    Geneva Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism 1937 (Draft). See discussion on this point within the website of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, “Definitions of Terrorism” (ibid). See also Andreu-Guzmán (2002, p. 185).

  69. 69.

    This definition was put to the United Nations Crime Branch by Schmidt in 1992 (ibid). See also Schmid (2004).

  70. 70.

    This definition comes from an earlier text by Schmidt and Jongman (1988, p. 5).

  71. 71.

    Recommendation 1426 (1999) of the Parliamentary Assembly of the European Union, “European Democracies Facing up to Terrorism”, 23 September 1999, para 5. See also the much more precise definition within article 3(1) of the European Council Common Position of 27 December 2001.

  72. 72.

    United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, “Definitions of Terrorism” (n 67).

  73. 73.

    GA Res 49/60 (n 25).

  74. 74.

    Ibid, as is evident through its preamble.

  75. 75.

    Ibid, para 2.

  76. 76.

    Ibid, para 1.

  77. 77.

    GA Res 50/53, UN GAOR, 50th Sess, 87th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/50/53 (1995), para 3.

  78. 78.

    Ibid, para 2. See also common para 2 of the following resolutions of the General Assembly: GA Res 51/210, 51st Sess, 88th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/51/210 (1996); GA Res 52/165, UN GAOR, 52nd Sess, 72nd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/52/165 (1997); GA Res 54/110, UN GAOR, 54th Sess, 76th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/54/110 (1999); GA Res 55/158, UN GAOR, 55th Sess, 84th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/55/158 (2000); GA Res 56/88, UN GAOR, 56th Sess, 85th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/56/88 (2001); GA Res 57/27, UN GAOR, 57th Sess, 52nd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/57/27 (2002); GA Res 58/81, UN GAOR, 58th Sess, 72nd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/58/81 (2003); and GA Res 59/46, UN GAOR, 59th Sess, 65th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/59/46 (2004). See further: GA Res 61/40, UN GAOR, 61st Sess, 64th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/61/40 (2007), preambular para 19, and operative para 4; GA Res 61/171, UN GAOR, 61st Sess, 81st Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/61/171 (2007), preambular para 12; GA Res 62/71, UN GAOR, 62nd Sess, 62nd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/62/71 (2008), preambular para 19, and operative para 4; and GA Res 62/159, UN GAOR, 62nd Sess, 76th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/62/159 (2008), preambular para 11.

  79. 79.

    Ganor (2000).

  80. 80.

    SC Res 1269, UN SCOR, 4053rd Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1269 (1999). See also Roach (2007) and Saul (2007).

  81. 81.

    SC Res 1373, UN SCOR, 5385th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1373 (2001).

  82. 82.

    SC Res 1566, UN SCOR, 5053rd Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1566 (2004), para 3. See also the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Handbook on Criminal Justice Responses to Terrorism (United Nations, New York, 2009), p. 40, as well as the following resolutions of the Security Council: SC Res 1617, UN SCOR, 5244th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1617 (2005), preambular para 2; SC Res 1735, UN SCOR, 5609th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1735 (2006), preambular para 2; SC Res 1787, UN SCOR 5795th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1787 (2007), preambular para 2; SC Res 1805, UN SCOR, 5856th Mtg, UN Doc 1805 (2008), preambular para 1; SC Res 1617, UN SCOR, 5244th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1617 (2005), preambular para 2; and SC Res 1822, UN SCOR, 5928th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1822 (2008), preambular para 2.

  83. 83.

    International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, opened for signature 10 January 2000, 2179 UNTS 232 (entered into force 10 April 1992).

  84. 84.

    By application of article 25 of the Charter of the United Nations.

  85. 85.

    Counter-Terrorism Committee, “International Law and Terrorism”, online: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/law.shtml (as accessed on 22 August 2008).

  86. 86.

    Ad Hoc Committee Established by General Assembly Resolution 51/210, UN Press Release L/2993.

  87. 87.

    High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility, UN Doc A/59/565 (2004), para 164(d).

  88. 88.

    Report of the UN Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights while countering terrorism, Martin Scheinin, The Protection and Promotion of Human Rights While Countering Terrorism, UN Doc E/CN.4/2006/098 (2005), para 36.

  89. 89.

    SC Res 1566 (n 82), para 3.

  90. 90.

    Report of the UN Special Rapporteur on Counter-Terrorism (n 88), para 38.

  91. 91.

    Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism, opened for signature 16 May 2005, 16 CETS 196 (entered into force 1 June 2007). The list of conventions mirrors the list contained within the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, but also includes the latter Convention.

  92. 92.

    SC Res 1566 (n 82) para 3; and Report of the Secretary-General’s High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change (n 87) para 164(d).

  93. 93.

    As advocated in his report (n 88) para 33.

  94. 94.

    Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection, opened for signature 1 March 1991, ICAO Doc 9571 (entered into force 21 June 1998), articles 2 and 3(1).

  95. 95.

    Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft, opened for signature 14 September 1963, 704 UNTS 219 (entered into force 4 December 1969), articles 1(1) and (4), and 3(2).

  96. 96.

    SC Res 1566 (n 82) para 3.

  97. 97.

    Special Rapporteur report (n 88) para 38.

  98. 98.

    See: SC Res 1269 (n 80) preambular para 1; SC Res 1373 (n 81) para 4; SC Res 1377, UN SCOR, 4413rd Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1377 (2001) para 6; SC Res 1456, UN SCOR, 4688th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1456 (2003) preambular paras 3 and 6; SC Res 1540, UN SCOR, 4956th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1540 (2004) preambular para 8; GA Res 3034 (XXVII), UN GAOR, 27th Sess, 2114th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/27/3034 (1972) para 1; GA Res 31/102, UN GAOR, 31st Sess, 99th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/31/102 (1976) para 1; GA Res 32/147, UN GAOR, 32nd Sess, 105th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/32/147 (1977) para 1; GA Res 34/145, UN GAOR, 34th Sess, 105th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/34/145 (1979) para 1; GA Res 36/109, UN GAOR, 36th Sess, UN Doc A/Res/36/109 (1981) para 1; GA Res 48/122, UN GAOR, 48th Sess, 85th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/48/122 (1993) preambular para 7; GA Res 49/185, UN GAOR, 49th Sess, 94th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res49/185 (1994) preambular para 9; GA Res 50/186, UN GAOR, 50th Sess, 99th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/50/186 (1995) preambular para 12; GA Res 52/133, UN GAOR, 52nd Sess, 70th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/52/133 (1997) preambular para 11; GA Res 54/164 54/164, UN GAOR, 54th Sess, 83rd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/54/164 (1999) preambular para 13; GA Res 56/160, UN GAOR, 56th Sess, 88th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/56/160 (2001) preambular para 18; GA Res 58/136, UN GAOR, 58th Sess, 77th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/58/136 (2004) preambular para 8; GA Res 58/174, UN GAOR, 58th Sess, 77th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/ 58/174 (2003) preambular para 12; CHR Res 2001/37, UN Doc E/CN.4/Res/2001/37, preambular para 16 and operative para 2; and UNCHR Res 2004/44, UN Doc E/CN.4/Res/2004/44, preambular para7.

  99. 99.

    International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism, adopted by the General Assembly and opened for signature on 15 April 2005 under GA Res 59/290, UN GAOR, 59th Sess, 91st Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/59/290 (2005) and entered into force 7 July 2007, article 2(1). See also paras (2) to (4) of article 2, which set out party and associated offences.

  100. 100.

    Special Rapporteur report (n 88) 41.

  101. 101.

    Special Rapporteur’s report on his Mission to Spain (n 26) para 6.

  102. 102.

    SC Res 1624, UN SCOR, 5261st mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1624 (2005) para 1(a) and (b). See also SC Res 1373 (n 81) para 5(3), which: “Declares that acts, methods, and practices of terrorism are contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations and that knowingly financing, planning and inciting terrorist acts are also contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations”.

  103. 103.

    SC Res 1373 (ibid) para 2(a).

  104. 104.

    Ibid para 2(b).

  105. 105.

    Ibid para 2(c) (d) and (e). See also SC Res 1566 (n 82) para 2, and SC Res 1456 (n 98) para 3.

  106. 106.

    SC Res 1373 (n 81) para 3(f) and (g).

  107. 107.

    SC Res 1373 (ibid) para 2(h).

  108. 108.

    SC Res 1456 (n 98) para 1.

  109. 109.

    Handbook on Criminal Justice Responses to Terrorism (n 82) p. 36. See also Duffy (2005, pp. 95–96); and the Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, UN Doc A/HRC/8/13 (2008), para 21.

  110. 110.

    Ibid.

  111. 111.

    Special Rapporteur report (n 88) para 46. See also the limited distribution resolution of the Human Rights Council during its 7th Session, UN Doc A/HRC/7/L.20 (2008), para 15; and also its resolution 7/7, UN Doc A/HRC/Res/7/7 (2008), para 16.

  112. 112.

    Special Rapporteur report (n 88) para 49; UN Doc A/HRC/7/L.20 (ibid) para 15; and HRC Res 7/7 (ibid) para 16.

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Conte, A. (2010). The Nature and Definition of Terrorism. In: Human Rights in the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-11608-7_2

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