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The Domestic Criminalisation of Terrorism, and Its Definition

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Human Rights in the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism

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Abstract

The international framework for the combating of terrorism calls for steps to be taken to hold accountable those who commit terrorist acts, and to adopt measures for the prevention of such acts. All but one of the 13 universal terrorism-related conventions require States parties to take steps to criminalise conduct specified under each of those conventions.1 Under article 2 of the Hague Convention, for example, States undertake to make the offences defined in article 1 of the treaty (concerning the hijacking of aircraft) punishable by severe penalties.2 The Security Council has also required, or in some cases called up, member States of the United Nations to prohibit certain conduct (concerning the distinction between recommendations and binding decisions of the Security Council, see Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.3). Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) requires States to prevent and suppress the financing of terrorist acts, including by criminalising the provision or collection of funds for use in order to carry out terrorist acts.3 Ensure that any person who participates in the financing, planning, preparation or perpetration of terrorist acts or in supporting terrorist acts is brought to justice and ensure that, in addition to any other measures against them, such terrorist acts are established as serious criminal offences in domestic laws and regulations and that the punishment duly reflects the seriousness of such terrorist acts;

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection, opened for signature 1 March 1991, ICAO Doc 9571 (entered into force 21 June 1998) is the exception to this. The Convention does not require States parties to proscribe any conduct, but instead places obligations upon States relating to the marking of explosives: see articles 2 and 3(1).

  2. 2.

    Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, opened for signature 16 December 1970, 860 UNTS 105 (entered into force 14 October 1971).

  3. 3.

    SC Res 1373, UN SCOR, 4385th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1373 (2001), para 1(a) and (b).

  4. 4.

    SC Res 1373 (ibid) para 2(e).

  5. 5.

    SC Res 1624, UN SCOR, 5261st mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1456 (2005), para 1(a).

  6. 6.

    Report of the UN Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights while countering terrorism, Martin Scheinin, The Protection and Promotion of Human Rights While Countering Terrorism, UN Doc E/CN.4/2006/098 (2005), Chapter 3. This has been reported to be the case in many other countries also – see, for example: the Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, UN Doc A/HRC/8/13 (2008), para 20; and the Report of the Eminent Jurists Panel on Terrorism, Counter-terrorism and Human Rights, Assessing Damage, Urging Action (Geneva: International Commission of Jurists, 2009), p. 124.

  7. 7.

    See SC Res 1566, UN SCOR, 5053rd Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1566 (2004), para 3.

  8. 8.

    Report by the Independent Reviewer Lord Carlile of Berriew QC, The Definition of Terrorism (Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for the Home Department, March 2007), para 22. See also Walker (2007, pp. 190–191).

  9. 9.

    Report on The Definition of Terrorism (ibid) para 23.

  10. 10.

    Report on The Definition of Terrorism (ibid) para 22 (proposition 3).

  11. 11.

    Report on The Definition of Terrorism (ibid) para 86(4).

  12. 12.

    Report on The Definition of Terrorism (ibid) para 8.

  13. 13.

    Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, Mission to Spain, UN Doc A/HRC/10/3/Add.2 (2008), para 6.

  14. 14.

    Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, Martin Scheinin, Australia: Study on Human Rights Compliance While Countering Terrorism, UN Doc A/HRC/4/26/Add.3 (2006), para 15.

  15. 15.

    Human Rights Committee, Concluding Observations: Australia, UN Doc CCPR/C/AUS/CO/5 (2009), para 11. See also the criticisms of the Law Council of Australia, which largely mirror those of the UN Special Rapporteur: Anti-Terrorism Reform Project: A consolidation of the Law Council of Australia’s advocacy in relation to Australia’s anti-terrorism measures (November 2008), pp. 20–22.

  16. 16.

    Jenkins (2003, p. 431). Contrast with McSherry (2004, pp. 360–364).

  17. 17.

    Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, Australia: Study on Human Rights Compliance While Countering Terrorism, UN Doc A/HRC/4/26/Add.3, para 15.

  18. 18.

    Special Rapporteur report on Australia (ibid) para 16.

  19. 19.

    Human Rights Committee, Concluding Observations: Canada, UN Doc CCPR/C/CAN/CO/5 (2006), para 12. At the time of the consideration by the Human Rights Committee of New Zealand’s most recent periodic report (during its session in July 2002), New Zealand had not enacted the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002 and the definition under the Act was thus not considered by the Committee. The Committee did, however, urge New Zealand to ensure that its definition would be in conformity with the ICCPR and would not lead to abuse – see Human Rights Committee, Concluding Observations: New Zealand, UN Doc CCPR/CO/75/NZL (2002), para 11.

  20. 20.

    Suresh v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) [2002] SCC 1, para 98. See also Golder and Williams (2004, pp. 280–281).

  21. 21.

    Gillan and Another v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis and Another [2006] UKHL 12, para 4 (Lord Bingham).

  22. 22.

    R v F [2007] EWCA Crim 243.

  23. 23.

    Ibid, paras 22–23.

  24. 24.

    Ibid, para 32. Leave to appeal to the House of Lords was rejected.

  25. 25.

    In Australia, see section 100.1(1) of the Criminal Code Act 1995 (paragraph (b) of the definition of “terrorist act”). In Canada, see section 83.01(1) of the Criminal Code 1985 (paragraph (b)(i)(A) of the definition of “terrorist activity”). In New Zealand, see section 5(2) of the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002. In the United Kingdom, see section 1(1)(c) of the Terrorism Act 2000.

  26. 26.

    This followed the amendment of section 1 of the Terrorism Act 2000 under section 75 of the Counter-Terrorism Act 2008.

  27. 27.

    In Australia, see section 100.1(1) of the Criminal Code Act 1995 (paragraph (c) of the definition of “terrorist act”). In Canada, see section 83.01(1) of the Criminal Code 1985 (paragraph (b)(i)(B) of the definition of “terrorist activity”). In New Zealand, see section 5(2)(a) and (b) of the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002. In the United Kingdom, see section 1(1)(b) of the Terrorism Act 2000.

  28. 28.

    In Australia, see section 100.1(2) of the Criminal Code Act 1995. In Canada, see section 83.01(1) of the Criminal Code 1985 (paragraph (b)(ii) of the definition of “terrorist activity”). In New Zealand, see section 5(3) of the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002. In the United Kingdom, see section 1(1)(a) and (2) of the Terrorism Act 2000.

  29. 29.

    In Australia, see section 100.1(2)(e) of the Criminal Code Act 1995. In Canada, see section 83.01(1) of the Criminal Code 1985 (paragraph (b)(ii)(C) of the definition of “terrorist activity”). In New Zealand, see section 5(3)(b) of the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002. In the United Kingdom, see section 1(2)(d) of the Terrorism Act 2000.

  30. 30.

    Section 100.1(2)(f) of the Criminal Code Act 1995.

  31. 31.

    Section 83.01(1) of the Criminal Code 1985 (paragraph (b)(ii)(E) of the definition of “terrorist activity”).

  32. 32.

    Section 1(2)(e) of the Terrorism Act 2000.

  33. 33.

    See, for example, Government of Canada Office of Critical Infrastructure Protection and Emergency Preparedness, The September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks – Critical Infrastructure Protection Lessons Learned (Incident Analysis IA02-001, 27 September 2002).

  34. 34.

    See, for example: Lord Carlile’s report on The Definition of Terrorism (n 8) p. 31; Baev 2006; Coleman (2006); Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Transnational Terrorism: The Threat to Australia (Commonwealth of Australia 2004), pp. 13–14; and Contingency Today, ‘UK infrastructure protection needs a rethink’, 10 February 2009, online: http://www.contingencytoday.com/online_article/UK-infrastructure-protection-needs-a-rethink-/1740.

  35. 35.

    In Australia, see section 100.1(2)(b) of the Criminal Code Act 1995. In Canada, see section 83.01(1) of the Criminal Code 1985 (paragraph (b)(ii)(D) of the definition of “terrorist activity”). In New Zealand, see section 5(3)(c) of the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002. In the United Kingdom, see section 1(2)(b) of the Terrorism Act 2000.

  36. 36.

    Report on The Definition of Terrorism (n 8) para 50.

  37. 37.

    By way of example, Statistics New Zealand identifies exports for the years ended June 2001, 2002 and 2003 to be as follows: milk powder, butter and cheese at $(million) 5,790 (2001), 5,891 (2002) and 4,679 (2003); meat and edible offal at $(million) 4,182 (2001), 4,429 (2002) and 4,112 (2003); logs, wood and wood article at $(million) 2,192 (2001), 2,378 (2002) and 2,386 (2003); fish, crustaceans and molluscs at $(million) 1,374 (2001), 1,402 (2002) and 1,032 (2003); and fruit at $(million) 1,045 (2001), 1,159 (2002) and 1,032 (2003): see Statistics New Zealand online information “Quick Facts – Economy”, online: http://www.stats.govt.nz/domino/external/web/nzstories.nsf/htmldocs/Quick+Facts+Economy (as accessed on 17 September 2004 – copy on file with author).

  38. 38.

    United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Handbook on Criminal Justice Responses to Terrorism (United Nations, New York, 2009), p. 37.

  39. 39.

    Walker (2007, p. 190).

  40. 40.

    See, for example, sections 57 and 58 of the Terrorism Act 2000 (UK) [ Appendix 3, Table 4(J)]. For commentary on comparable offences in Australia, see McSherry (2004, pp. 366–367).

  41. 41.

    Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, Protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, UN Doc A/61/267, para 11. See also the Handbook on Criminal Justice Responses to Terrorism (n 38) p. 37.

  42. 42.

    Report of the UN Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights while countering terrorism, Martin Scheinin, The Protection and Promotion of Human Rights While Countering Terrorism, UN Doc E/CN.4/2006/098 (2005), chapter III, especially para 44. See also the report of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (n 6) para 23; and the Law Council of Australia’s Anti-Terrorism Reform Project (n 15) pp. 24–27.

  43. 43.

    Clarke, Hon John QC. Report of the Inquiry into the Case of Dr Mohamed Haneef (Australia: Commonwealth of Australia, 2008), p. 260.

  44. 44.

    Haneef Inquiry Report (Ibid) p. 260. See also the Law Council of Australia’s Anti-Terrorism Reform Project (n 15) pp. 25–27.

  45. 45.

    Report of the Security Council Working Group established pursuant to resolution 1566 (2004), UN Doc S/2005/789 (2005), para 28.

  46. 46.

    The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Report to the Counter-Terrorism Committee pursuant to paragraph 6 of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) of 28 September 2001, UN Doc S/2001/1232 (2001), p. 7.

  47. 47.

    The Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection, opened for signature 1 March 1991, ICAO Doc 9571 (entered into force 21 June 1998) does not require States parties to proscribe any conduct, but instead places obligations upon States relating to the marking of explosives: see articles 2 and 3(1) – see also Chap. 3, Sect. 3.1.1.4.

  48. 48.

    See also: section 72.13 of the Criminal Code Act 1995 (Australia), in Appendix 3, Table 2(A); sections 46–49 of the Aviation Transport Security Act 2004 (Australia), in Appendix 3, Table 2(C); section 78 of the Criminal Code 1985 (Canada), in Appendix 3, Table 3(B); section 13B of the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002 (NZ); and section 2 of the Terrorism Act 2006 (UK), in Appendix 3, Table 5(M), discussed in Chap. 20, Sect. 20.2.3.2.

  49. 49.

    See also section 9(2) and (3) of the Terrorism Prevention Act 2005 (UK), in Appendix 3, Table 5(L).

  50. 50.

    See also sections 6 and 16–18 of the Security of Information Act 1985 (Canada).

  51. 51.

    For further details, see Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, ‘Operation Waiheke Island’, online: http://www.maf.govt.nz/mafnet/press/operation-waiheke.

  52. 52.

    Section 298B of the Crimes Act 1961 requires the actus reus to be accompanied by: (a) an intention to harm a person, or recklessness as to whether any person is harmed; or (b) an intention to cause major economic loss to a person, or recklessness in that regard; or (c) and intention to cause major economic damage to the national economy of New Zealand, or recklessness in that regard.

  53. 53.

    Corresponding to article 2(1) of the International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombing, opened for signature 12 January 1998, 2149 UNTS 286 (entered into force 23 May 2001).

  54. 54.

    See also the offence of threats to people or property under section 307A of the Crimes Act 1961 (NZ), introduced under the Counter-Terrorism Bill 2003, which has no link with any of the characteristics under Security Council resolution 1566 (2004) – see Appendix 3, Table 4(F). Consider also the weapons training offence under section 54 of the Terrorism Act 2000 (UK) which is not linked to terrorism – see Appendix 3, Table 5(J).

  55. 55.

    See also: section 58A of the Terrorism Act 2008 (UK), in Appendix 3, Table 5(J); sections 47 and 50 of the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 (UK), in Appendix 3, Table 5(K).

  56. 56.

    Special Rapporteur report on Australia (n 17), paras 29 and 67.

  57. 57.

    Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (n 2) article 2; International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, opened for signature 10 January 2000, 2179 UNTS 232 (entered into force 10 April 1992), article 4. See also the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against International Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, opened for signature 14 December 1973, 1035 UNTS 167 (entered into force 20 February 1977), which requires each State Party to penalise and to impose “appropriate penalties which take into account their grave nature” (article 2(2)); the International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, opened for signature 18 December 1979, 1316 UNTS 205 (entered into force 3 June 1983), which indicates that each State shall punish the offences set forth “by appropriate penalties which take into account the grave nature of those offences” (article 2); the same applies to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, opened for signature 10 March 1988, 1678 UNTS 221 (entered into force 1 March 1992), article 5, and the International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombing, opened for signature 12 January 1998, 2149 UNTS 286 (entered into force 23 May 2001), article 4(b).

  58. 58.

    SC Res 1373 (n 3) para 2(e).

  59. 59.

    United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Guide for the Legislative Incorporation and Implementation of the Universal Anti-Terrorism Instruments (United Nations, New York, 2006), para 245.

  60. 60.

    See, in Australia, offences under sections 17, 18 and 25 of the Crimes (Aviation) Act 1991; section 8(1) of the Crimes (Hostages) Act 1989; sections 8, 10, 21, and 23 of the Crimes (Ships and Fixed Platforms) Act 1992; and sections 72.3 and 101.1 of the Criminal Code Act 1995. In Canada, see sections 7(3.2), 76–78, 83.2, 83.21, 83.22 and 279.1 of the Criminal Code 1985. In New Zealand, see section 3 of the Aviation Crimes Act 1972; and sections 5 and 6A(1) of the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002. In the United Kingdom, see sections 47 and 50 of the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001; sections 9–14 of the Aviation and Maritime Security Act 1990; sections 1–3 of the Aviation Security Act 1982; section 1 of the Biological Weapons Act 1974; section 2 of the Chemical Weapons Act 1996; sections 2, 3 and 5 of the Explosive Substances Act 1883; section 2 of the Nuclear Material (Offences) Act 1983; section 1 of the Taking of Hostages Act 1982; section 56 of the Terrorism Act 2000; and sections 5 and 9–11 of the Terrorism Act 2006.

  61. 61.

    See, in Australia, sections 20, 21 and 27 of the Charter of the United Nations Act 1945; sections 14, 16, 19–23 and 25–26 of the Crimes (Aviation) Act 1991; section 8(3) and (4) of the Crimes (Hostages) Act 1989; sections 9, 11–16, 22, and 25–27 of the Crimes (Ships and Fixed Platforms) Act 1992; sections 72.12, 72.13, 72.14, 101.4, 101.5, 102.4 and 102.5 of the Criminal Code Act 1995; and sections 33–37 of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation (Safeguards) Act 1987. In Canada, see sections 83.02-83.04, 83.08, 83.12, 83.19, 83.23 of the Criminal Code 1985; section 3 of the United Nations Act 1985. In New Zealand, see sections 8, 13, 13B, and 13E of the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002. In the United Kingdom, see section 1 of the Internationally Protected Persons Act 1978; sections 11–12, 15–18, 54, 57 and 58 of the Terrorism Act 2000; and sections 6 and 8 of the Terrorism Act 2006.

  62. 62.

    See sections 101.2, 102.2 and 102.6 of the Criminal Code Act 1995. The same level of maximum penalty is also provided for the offence of providing support to a terrorist organisation under section 102.7 of the Criminal Code.

  63. 63.

    Including, for example, the offences of associating with terrorist organisations (section 102.8 of the Criminal Code Act 1995 – three years), making threats and false statements affecting aviation security (sections 24 and 25 of the Crimes (Aviation) Act 1991 – two years), possessing unmarked plastic explosives (section 72.15 of the Criminal Code – two years), breaching packaging requirements for plastic explosives (section 72.17 of the Criminal Code – two years), and threats to commit offences under the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation (section 17 of the Crimes (Ships and Fixed Platforms) Act 1992 – two years).

  64. 64.

    Report of the Security Council Working Group established pursuant to resolution 1566 (2004), UN Doc S/2005/789 (2005), para 29.

  65. 65.

    SC Res 1373 (n 3) para 5(3).

  66. 66.

    SC Res 1624 (n 5).

  67. 67.

    World Islamic Front, Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders, 23 February 1998 (signed, amongst others, by Usama bin Laden), online: http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/980223-fatwa.htm.

  68. 68.

    Ibid, un-numbered para 1. The phrase is taken from The Holy Qura’an, 9:5.

  69. 69.

    Ibid, un-numbered para 8.

  70. 70.

    Ibid, un-numbered para 3.

  71. 71.

    See further Conte and Ganor (2005), parts II(D)(3) and II(D)(4).

  72. 72.

    The International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism has written much on this subject. See, for example (all available online, at http://www.ict.org.il): Fighel and Shahar (2002); Shahar (2002); Kahati (2003); and Kahati and Fighel (2003).

  73. 73.

    Salem Almakhi, Mending the Hearts of the Believers, online: http://www.jihadonline.bravepages.com/mending.htm. Salem Almakhi is said to be one of Usama bin Laden’s supporters and admirers, and personally knowledgeable of Al-Qa’ida operations: see Fighel and Kehati (2002).

  74. 74.

    Almakhi (ibid) un-numbered para 23.

  75. 75.

    Security Council Committee Established Pursuant to Resolution 1267 (1999), Guidance for Reports Required of all States pursuant to paragraphs 6 and 12 of Resolution 1455 (2003), online: http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1267/guidanc_en.pdf, un-numbered para 1.

  76. 76.

    Almakhi (n 73) penultimate para.

  77. 77.

    Aljazeera, ‘New Al-Qaeda Tape Calls for Attacks’ (Aljazeera.net, 21 May 2003), online: http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/293D19D4-CBB9-4296-B158-D54246F6259E.htm (as accessed 22 November 2005 – copy on file with author).

  78. 78.

    Associated Press, ‘Indonesia Video Warning on Terror’ (CNN.com International, 17 November 2005), online: http://edition.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/asiapcf/11/16/indonesia.terror.ap/ (as accessed 22 November 2005 – copy on file with author).

  79. 79.

    United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Guide for the Legislative Incorporation and Implementation of the Universal Instruments Against Terrorism (Division of Treaty Affairs, Terrorism Prevention Branch, 2006), para 250.

  80. 80.

    See, for example: GA Res 58/136, UN GAOR, 58th sess, 77th plen mtg, UN Doc A/Res/58/136 (2003), paras 1 and 5; GA Res 58/140, UN GAOR; 58th sess, 77th plen mtg, UN Doc A/Res/58/140 (2003), para 2; GA Res 59/46, UN GAOR, 59th sess, 65th plen mtg, UN Doc A/Res/59/46 (2004), paras 13 and 15; GA Res 59/80, UN GAOR, 59th sess, 66th plen mtg, UN Doc A/Res/59/80 (2004), paras 1 and 2 (see also newly adopted GA resolutions 60/43, 60/73 and 60/78); SC Res 1456, UN SCOR, 4668th mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1456 (2003), para 5; SC Res 1566, UN SCOR, 5053rd mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1566 (2004), para 2; SC Res 1618, UN SCOR, 5246th mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1618 (2005), para 6; and SC Res 1624 (n 5) paras 1, 2 and 3.

  81. 81.

    SC Res 1373 (n 3) para 2(b).

  82. 82.

    Convention Against the Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, opened for signature 14 December 1984, 28 ILM 493 (entered into force 11 November 1990).

  83. 83.

    Statute of the International Criminal Court, opened for signature 17 July 1988, 2187 UNTS 90, entered into force 1 July 2002), article 25(3)(e).

  84. 84.

    International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, opened for signature 16 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171 (entered into force 23 March 1976).

  85. 85.

    Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism, opened for signature 16 May 2005, CETS 196 (entered into force 1 July 2007). The Convention was signed by the United Kingdom on 16 May 2005.

  86. 86.

    GA Res 40/61, UN GAOR, 40th Sess, 108th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/40/61 (1985), para 6.

  87. 87.

    Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, adopted under GA Res 49/60, UN GAOR, 49th Sess, 84th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/49/60 (1994), para 5(a).

  88. 88.

    GA Res 59/195, UN GAOR, 59th Sess, 74th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/59/195 (2004), para 12.

  89. 89.

    See article 10 of the Charter of the United Nations 1945.

  90. 90.

    For that to be the case, it would need to be shown that the relevant provision(s) of the declaration represent the conduct of States, such conduct being undertaken out of a sense of legal obligation (opinio juris): see the Statute of the International Court of Justice, opened for signature 26 June 1945 (entered into force 24 October 1945), article 38(1)(b).

  91. 91.

    SC Res 1373 (n 3).

  92. 92.

    SC Res 1624 (n 5).

  93. 93.

    Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism (n 85) article 5.

  94. 94.

    Special Rapporteur on Australia (n 17) paras 26–27.

  95. 95.

    See further on this point the report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, UN Doc E/CN.4/2006/98 (2006), paras 32–36.

  96. 96.

    See R v Bowern [1915] 34 NZLR 696.

  97. 97.

    Ribbelink (2006, p. 197).

  98. 98.

    Fifth Report of the Government of Canada on the implementation of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001), UN Doc S/2006/185 (2006), pp. 14–15.

  99. 99.

    Special Rapporteur report on Australia (n 17) para 25.

  100. 100.

    Special Rapporteur report on Australia (n 17) para 26.

  101. 101.

    MacDonald and Williams (2007, p. 31).

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Conte, A. (2010). The Domestic Criminalisation of Terrorism, and Its Definition. In: Human Rights in the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-11608-7_14

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