Human Rights Compliance in the Fight Against Terrorism

Conte, Alex

doi:10.1007/978-3-642-11608-7_13

Alex Conte²

1924 Accesses
1 Citations

Abstract

The relationship between terrorism and human rights is a matter that has been reflected upon well before the events of 11 September 2001. Since 9/11, with events such as the establishment of the detention camp at Guantánamo Bay and the proliferation of security and counter-terrorist legislation throughout the world, more attention has been paid to the issue of the extent to which counter-terrorism impacts upon human rights.As noted by the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights:¹Some States have engaged in torture and other ill-treatment to counter terrorism, while the legal and practical safeguards available to prevent torture, such as regular and independent monitoring of detention centres, have often been disregarded. Other States have returned persons suspected of engaging in terrorist activities to countries where they face a real risk of torture or other serious human rights abuse, thereby violating the international legal obligation of non-refoulement. The independence of the judiciary has been undermined, in some places, while the use of exceptional courts to try civilians has had an impact on the effectiveness of regular court systems. Repressive measures have been used to stifle the voices of human rights defenders, journalists, minorities, indigenous groups and civil society. Resources normally allocated to social programmes and development assistance have been diverted to the security sector, affecting the economic, social and cultural rights of many.

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Notes

1.
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Human Rights, Terrorism and Counter-terrorism, Fact Sheet No 32 (New York and Geneva: United Nations, 2008), available online at http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/Factsheet32EN.pdf, p. 1. See also: Almqvist (2005), and Human Rights Watch, In the Name of Counter-Terrorism: Human Rights Abuses Worldwide (Human Rights Watch Briefing Paper for the 59th Session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, 25 March 2003), available online at http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/counter-terrorism-bck_0.pdf; and International Council on Human Rights Policy, Human Rights After September 11 (Versoix, 2002).
2.
The United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, GA Res 60/288, UN GAOR, 60th sess, 99th plen mtg, UN Doc A/Res/60/288 (8 September 2006). The UN General Assembly reaffirmed the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy in September 2008: see GA Res 62/272, UN GAOR, 62nd sess, 120th plen mtg, UN Doc A/Res/62/272 (2008).
3.
Report of the Secretary-General, Uniting Against Terrorism: Recommendations for a Global Counter-terrorism Strategy, UN Doc A/60/825 (27 April 2006), para 5. See also Part VI thereof. See also the 2008 Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, UN Doc A/HRC/8/13 (2008), p. 2.
4.
Ibid, para 118.
5.
Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy (n 2), Pillar I, preambular para. See also Walker (2007, p. 186), where he states that: “‘Preventing’ terrorism is achieved by tackling the radicalisation of individuals through tackling disadvantage and supporting reform, including in the reduction of inequalities and discrimination…”. For further elaboration on the concept of conditions conducive to the spread of terrorism, see the report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, UN Doc A/HRC/12/22 (2009), paras 43–46.
6.
Hampson (2006).
7.
Neitzsche (1973, Chap. IV “Apophthegms and Interludes”, Sect. 146). See also Ignatieff (2004).
8.
Suresh v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) [2002] SCC 1, 13. See also the judgment of Lord Hoffman in A v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2005] 2 AC 68, p. 132, where (with reference to the detention without charge regime under Part 4 of the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001) he stated: “The real threat to the life of the nation, in the sense of a people living in accordance with its traditional laws and political values, comes not from terrorism but from laws such as these”. United States President Obama recently criticised the Bush Administration’s counter-terrorism strategy as including decisions based on fear and rooted in an “anything goes” attitude toward traditional restraints on the chief executive. This, he suggested, unnecessarily sacrificed American ideals, alienated allies and produced more terrorists, not fewer. See USA Today, ‘A course correction, not a retreat, on fighting terrorism’, 26 May 2009, p. 7A (copy on file with author).
9.
See the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, opened for signature 16 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171 (entered into force 23 March 1976), article 6 (right to life).
10.
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America), Merits [1986] ICJ Reports, paras 172–201.
11.
See the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (opened for signature 23 May 1969, entered into force 27 January 1980) 1155 UNTS 331, article 34.
12.
Myjer (2009, p. 1).
13.
2005 World Summit Outcome, GA Res 60/1, UN GAOR, 69th Sess, 8th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/60/1 (2005), para 85. See also the G8 Declaration on Counter-Terrorism (2009), which states at p. 2: “… while we stress the fundamental importance of disrupting and prosecuting terrorists, we are convinced that in the long term the most effective response to their criminal strategy remains the promotion of democracy, human rights, the rule of law and equitable social conditions”.
14.
International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, opened for signature 10 January 2000, 2179 UNTS 232 (entered into force 10 April 1992).
15.
GA Res 48/122, UN GAOR, 48th Sess, 85th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/48/122 (1993).
16.
See also GA Res 50/186, UN GAOR, 50th Sess, 99th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/50/186 (1995), preambular paras 13 and 14, and operative para 3; GA Res 52/133, UN GAOR, 52nd Sess, 70th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/52/133 (1997), preambular paras 12 and 13, and operative para 4; GA Res 54/164, UN GAOR, 54th Sess, 83rd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/54/164 (1999), preambular paras 15 and 16, and operative para 4; GA Res 56/160, UN GAOR, 56th Sess, 88th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/56/160 (2001), preambular paras 22 and 23, and operative paras 5 and 6; and GA Res 58/174, UN GAOR, 58th Sess, 77th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/58/174 (2003), preambular paras 20 and 21, and operative para 7.
17.
GA Res 56/88, UN GAOR, 56th Sess, 85th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/56/88 (2001), preambular para 9 and operative para 3. The preambular paragraph returned to the language of combating terrorism “in accordance with the principles of the Charter”, and operative paragraph 4 talked of combating terrorism in accordance with international law “including international standards of human rights”. See also similar statements within GA Res 57/27, UN GAOR, 57th Sess, 52nd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/57/27 (2002), preambular para 8 and operative para 6; GA Res 58/81, UN GAOR, 58th Sess, 72nd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/58/81 (2003), preambular para 9 and operative para 6; GA Res 58/136, UN GAOR, 58th Sess, 77th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res 58/136 (2003), preambular para 10 and operative para 5; and GA Res 59/46, UN GAOR, 59th Sess, 65th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/59/46 (2004), preambular para 10 and operative para 3.
18.
GA Res 57/219, UN GAOR, 57th Sess, 77th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/57/219 (2002); GA Res 58/187, UN GAOR, 58th Sess, 77th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/8/187 (2003); and GA Res 59/191, UN GAOR, 59th Sess, 74th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/59/191 (2004). See also: GA Res 59/46, UN GAOR, 59th Sess, 65th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/59/46 (2004), preambular para 10 and operative para 3; GA Res 59/153, UN GAOR, 59th Sess, 74th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/59/153 (2004), preambular paras 11 and 12; GA Res 59/195, UN GAOR, 59th Sess, 74th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/59/195 (2004), preambular paras 5, 23 and 24 and operative paras 8 and 10; GA Res 60/158, UN GAOR, 60th Sess, 64th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/60/158 (2005), preambular paras 2, 3 and 7, and operative para 1; GA Res 61/40, UN GAOR, 61st Sess, 64th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/61/40 (2007), preambular para 12 and 20, and operative para 5; GA Res 61/171, UN GAOR, 61st Sess, 81st Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/61/171 (2006), preambular paras 3 and 5 and operative para 1; GA Res 62/71, UN GAOR, 62nd Sess, 62nd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/62/71 (2008), preambular para 12 and 20, and operative para 5; GA Res 62/159, UN GAOR, 62nd Sess, 76th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/62/159 (2007), preambular paras 3, 4 and 9 and operative para 1; and GA Res 63/185, UN GAOR, 63rd Sess, 70th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/63/185 (2008), preambular paras 3, 5, and 10 and operative para 1.
19.
Charter of the United Nations, article 62(2).
20.
An example of the use of resolutions of the General Assembly to determine the content of customary rules can be seen in Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America), Merits (1986) ICJ Rep, 76 ILR 349, where the International Court of Justice gave consideration to two resolutions of the Assembly as evidence of the content of the principle of non-intervention: those being the Declaration on the Inadmissibility of Intervention in the Domestic Affairs of States, UNGA Res 213 (XX) (1965) GAOR (20th Sess, 1408th Plen Mtg) UN Doc A/Res/2131; and the Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-Operation Among States, UNGA Res 2625 (XXV) (1970) GAOR (25th Sess, 1883rd Plen Mtg) UN Doc A/Res/2625.
21.
Under Article 24 of the Charter of the United Nations, the Security Council is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security, paragraph 1 providing that: “In order to ensure prompt and effective action by the United Nations, its Members confer on the Security Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, and agree that in carrying out its duties under this responsibility the Security Council acts on their behalf”.
22.
See, for example, SC Res 1373, UN SCOR, 4385th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1373 (2001), preambular para 5; SC Res 1438, UN SCOR, 4624th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1438 (2002), preambular para 2; SC Res 1440, UN SCOR, 4632nd Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1440 (2002), preambular para 2; SC Res 1450, UN SCOR, 4667th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1450 (2002), preambular para 4; SC Res 1455, UN SCOR, 4686th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1455 (2003), preambular para 3; SC Res 1456, UN SCOR, 4668th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1456 (2004), preambular para 8; SC Res 1535, UN SCOR, 4936th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1535 (2004), preambular para 4; SC Res 1540, UN SCOR, 4956th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1540 (2004), preambular para 14; SC Res 1566, UN SCOR, 5053rd Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1566 (2004), preambular paras 3 and 6; SC Res 1611, UN SCOR, 5223rd Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1611 (2005), preambular para 2; SC Res 1617, UN SCOR, 5244th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1617 (2005), preambular para 4; SC Res 1618, UN SCOR, 5246th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1618 (2005), preambular para 4; SC Res 1624, UN SCOR, 5261st Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/1624 (2005), preambular para 2 and operative paras 1 and 4; SC Res 1735, UN SCOR, 5609th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1735 (2006), preambular para 4; SC Res 1787, UN SCOR 5795th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1787 (2007), preambular para 4; SC Res 1805, UN SCOR, 5856th Mtg, UN Doc 1805 (2008), preambular para 8; and SC Res 1822, UN SCOR, 5928th Mtg, UN Doc 1822 (2008), preambular para 3.
23.
Ibid.
24.
Member States of the United Nations have agreed to be bound by “decisions” of the Security Council: see Charter of the United Nations, article 25.
25.
SC Res 1624 (n 22) para 4.
26.
CHR Res 2001/37, UN ESCOR, 57th Sess, 72nd Mtg, UN Doc E/CN.4/Res/2001/37 (2001), preambular paras 18 and 19 and operative paras 7 and 8. Preambular para 19 was later reflected in UN Sub-Commission on Human Rights Res 2001/18, UN ESCOR, 53rd Sess, 26th Mtg, UN Doc E/CN.4/Sub.2/2001/18 (2001), preambular para 13.
27.
CHR Res 2004/44, UN ESCOR, 60th Sess, 55th Mtg, UN Doc E/CN.4/Res/2004/44 (2004), preambular para 24 and operative paras 10, 11 and 12.
28.
CHR Res 2004/87, UN ESCOR, 60th Sess, 58th Mtg, UN Doc E/CN.4/Res/2004/87 (2004), paras 1 and 2.
29.
CHR Res 2005/80, UN ESCOR, 61st Sess, 60th Mtg, UN Doc E/CN.4/Res/2005/80 (2005).
30.
GA Res 60/251, UN GAOR, 60th Sess, 72nd Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/60/251 (2006). The resolution establishing the Human Rights Council was adopted by a vote of 170 in favour to four against (voting against the resolution were Israel, the Marshall Islands, Palau and the United States), with three abstentions (abstaining were Belarus, Iran and Venezuela).
31.
HRC Res 7/7, UN Doc A/HRC/Res/7/7 (2008), para 1; and HRC Res 10/L.31. UN Doc A/HRC/Res/10/L.31 (2009), para 1.
32.
Sir Jeremy Greenstock, Threats to International Peace and Security Posed by Terrorism, 18 January 2002, UN Doc S/PV.4453, 5.
33.
Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, ESCOR (62nd Sess) UN Doc E/CN.4/2006/98 (2005), chapter IV, and para 73.
34.
Recognised by the UN Secretary-General in his report entitled United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy: Activities of the United Nations system in implementing the Strategy, UN Doc A/62/898 (2008), para 42. The Committee’s website now includes a page dedicated to the subject of human rights, online at http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/rights.html. See also Koufa (2005, pp. 58–60).
35.
Counter-Terrorism Committee, Report of the Counter-Terrorism Committee to the Security Council for its consideration as part of its comprehensive review of the Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate, UN Doc S/2005/800 (2005). See also the recent briefing to the Security Council by the Acting Chairman of the Counter-Terrorism Committee on 26 May 2009, where he stated: “In its dialogue with Member States, the Committee continued reminding them that they must ensure that any measures taken to combat terrorism comply with all their obligations under international law, in particular international human rights, refugee and humanitarian law. The senior human rights officer in CTED regularly contributes relevant information for inclusion in the PIAs, provides briefings for CTED country visits and has participated in two of them, as well as promotes consistent approach to human rights issues in CTED’s activities”. See also the Joint Statement issued at the outcome of the Fifth Special Meeting of the Counter-Terrorism Committee with international, regional and sub-regional organizations, “Prevention of Terrorism Movement and Effective Border Security”, 29–31 October 2007, Nairobi, Kenya, preambular para 12, and para 8, online at http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/pdf/Nairobi_joint_statement.pdf.
36.
Survey of the implementation of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001): Report of the Counter-Terrorism Committee, UN Doc S/2008/379 (2008), paras 141 and 143(a).
37.
New Zealand National Report to the United Nations Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee, UN Doc S/2006/384 (2006), item 2.6. See also item 2.4 on the report, which reflects the Committee’s question: “What international efforts is New Zealand participating in or considering participating in/initiating in order to enhance dialogue and broaden understanding among civilisations in an effort to prevent the indiscriminate targeting of different religions and cultures?”.
38.
Recorded in the (fifth) Report of the Government of Canada on the implementation of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001), UN Doc S/2006/185 (2006), question 1.5.
39.
GA Res 62/272 (n 2), para 7.
40.
UN Secretary-General’s 2008 report (n 34), para 81. See further Schmid (2004); and Rosand et al. (2008, pp. 9–10).
41.
Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and Follow-up to the World Conference on Human Rights, Human Rights: A Uniting Framework, ESCOR (58th Sess) UN Doc E/CN.4/2002/18 (2002), Annex entitled Proposals for “further guidance” for the submission of reports pursuant to paragraph 6 of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001).
42.
Ibid para 1.
43.
Ibid para 2.
44.
Digest of Jurisprudence of the UN and Regional Organizations on the Protection of Human Rights While Countering Terrorism (United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, September 2003). The Office of the High Commissioner is currently working on an updated edition of the Digest.
45.
Ibid 3.
46.
Ibid 11–12. See, for example, Delgado Paez v Colombia, Human Rights Committee communication 195/1985, views adopted 12 July 1990, para 5.5.
47.
Ibid 13–15.
48.
Sub-Commission Special Rapporteur on terrorism and human rights, Kalliopi Koufa, Specific Human Rights Issues: New Priorities, in Particular Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism. A Preliminary Framework Draft of Principles and Guidelines Concerning Human Rights and Terrorism, UN Doc E/CN.4/Sub.2/2005/39 (2005). In 2006, the Special Rapporteur issued a further version of the Preliminary Framework Draft of Principles and Guidelines, this time under the auspices of the Human Rights Council, UN Doc A/HRC/Sub.1/58/30 (2006).
49.
This mandate was consequent to the request of the General Assembly for the Commission to do so (see GA Res 49/185, UN GAOR, 49th Sess, 94th Plen Mtg, UN Doc A/Res/49/185 (1994), para 6) and through the Commission’s own decision to consider the issue: see CHR Res 1994/46, UN ESCOR, 50th Sess, 56th Mtg, UN Doc E/CN.4/Res/1994/46 (1994).
50.
Sub-Commission Special Rapporteur (n 48) para 25.
51.
Independent Expert on the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, Robert Goldman, Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms While Countering Terrorism ESCOR (61st Sess) UN Doc E/CN.4/2005/103. Dr Goldman was appointed under UNCHR Res 2004/87 (2004) ESCOR (60th Sess) UN Doc E/CN.4/Res/2004/87.
52.
Ibid para 7.
53.
UNCHR Res 2005/80 (n 29).
54.
HRC Res 6/28, UN Doc A/HRC/Res/6/28 (2007), para 2.
55.
Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, GAOR (60th Sess) UN Doc A/60/370 (2005).
56.
Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism (n 33).
57.
To access all of the Special Rapporteur’s reports, see the website of the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/terrorism/rapporteur/reports.htm.
58.
Fact Sheet No 32 (n 1), p. 45.
59.
For a full list of agencies represented in the Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force, see the UN Secretary-General’s 2008 report (n 34), Annex.
60.
UN Secretary-General’s 2008 report (n 34), para 86. The current Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, who is a member of the Working Group, plans to complete his mandate in 2010 with a report to the General Assembly or the Human Rights Council on best practices in protecting human rights while countering terrorism.
61.
The Basic Technical Reference Guide Series is likely to also include guides on detention, formulation of criminal charges, sanctions against individuals or entities, interception of communications, demolition of housing or other personal property, and the use of firearms, particularly in the context of suicide bombing.
62.
UN Office at Geneva, Terms of Reference for consultancy to Alex Conte on development of a Basic Technical Reference Guide on Designing Security Infrastructure, p. 1.
63.
International Commission of Jurists, Terrorism and Human Rights, (International Commission of Jurists, 2002).
64.
Ibid 248–251.
65.
International Commission of Jurists, Berlin Declaration on Upholding Human Rights and the Rule of Law in Combating Terrorism, adopted 28 August 2004, available online: http://www.icj.org/IMG/pdf/Berlin_Declaration.pdf (last accessed 27 July 2005).
66.
Ibid preambular para 2 and operative para 1.
67.
Ibid preambular para 5.
68.
Report of the Eminent Jurists Panel on Terrorism, Counter-terrorism and Human Rights, Assessing Damage, Urging Action (Geneva: International Commission of Jurists, 2009).
69.
Council of Europe, Guidelines on Human Rights and the Fight Against Terrorism (Council of Europe Publishing, 2002).
70.
Ibid 5.
71.
Which has compulsory jurisdiction over States parties to the (European) Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, opened for signature 4 November 1950, 213 UNTS 222 (entered into force 3 September 1953), article 46.
72.
See, for example, Ireland v the United Kingdom, ECHR, 18 January 1978, para 11; Askoy v Turkey, ECHR, 18 December 1996, paras 70 and 84; Zana v Turkey, ECHR, 25 November 1997, paras 59 and 60; Incal v Turkey, ECHR, 9 June 1998, para 58; United Communist Party of Turkey and Others v Turkey, ECHR, 20 November 1998, para 59; and Brogan and Others v the United Kingdom, ECHR, 29 November 1999, para 48.
73.
Klass and Others v Germany, ECHR, 6 September 1978, para 59
74.
Compare Article II with paras 3 and 4(i) and (j) of the Commissioner’s Guidelines (n 41).
75.
Compare Article III with para 4(a), (b), (e), (f), and (g) of the Commissioner’s Guidelines (n 41).
76.
Countering Terrorism, Protecting Human Rights. A Manual (Warsaw: Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, 2007).
77.
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Report on Terrorism and Human Rights, Doc OEA/Ser.L/V/II.116 (22 October 2002), online: http://www.cidh.org/Terrorism/Eng/toc.htm (last accessed 6 September 2005).
78.
Inter-American Convention against Terrorism, opened for signature 3 June 2002, OAS Treaty A-66 (2003) 42 ILM 19, Article 15.
79.
The report considers the right to life (part III.A), the right to personal liberty and security (part III.B), the right to humane treatment (part III.C), rights to due process and a fair trial (part III.D), the freedom of expression (part III.E), non-discrimination (part III.F), refugee and asylum rights (part III.H), and other civil rights (part III.G): Inter-American Commission on Human Rights report (n 77).
80.
Ibid paras 51 and 55.
81.
OAS General Assembly Resolution 1906, Human Rights and Terrorism, 4th Plen Sess, 4 June 2002, OAS Doc AG/Res 1906 (XXXII-O/02).
82.
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Recommendations of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights for the Protection by OAS Member States of Human Rights in the Fight Against Terrorism (Washington, 8 May 2006), para 3.
83.
United Nations Economic and Social Council Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation of Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, UN Doc E/CN.4/1985/4 (1985).
84.
Human Rights Committee, General Comment 29: States of Emergency (Article 4), UN Doc CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.11 (2001).
85.
Ottawa Principles on Anti-terrorism and Human Rights, available online at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/type,THEMGUIDE,,,470e0e642,0.html.
86.
Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (n 5), para 3. See also the report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, UN Doc A/HRC/6/17 (2007).
87.
Conte (2008).
88.
Conte and Ganor (2005).
89.
As implied in the approach of Keijzer (2002, p. 129).
90.
See Sect. 13.1 above.
91.
See Chap. 9.
92.
See Chap. 9, Sect. 9.3. See also the 2006 Recommendations of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (n 82), paras 6–7; Becker (2006, pp. 66–82); and, more generally, Borelli (2004).
93.
See Chap. 10, Sect. 10.1.
94.
See Chap. 10, Sect. 10.1. See also the guidelines of the Council of Europe (n 69), Guideline XVI.
95.
See Chap. 10, Sects. 10.1 and 10.3. See also Golder and Williams (2006).
96.
See Chap. 10, Sect. 10.4. See also the guidelines of the Council of Europe (n 70), Guideline XV; the OSCE Manual (n 76), pp. 87–91; the 2006 Recommendations of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (n 82), para 8; and the Ottawa Principles (n 85), principle 2.4.
97.
See Chap. 10, Sect. 10.3.
98.
See Chap. 10, Sect. 10.2.
99.
See Chap. 10, Sect. 10.2.2. See also the Commissioner’s Guidelines (n 41), paras 3(a) and 4(a); the guidelines of the Council of Europe (n 69), Guideline III; the report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (n 77), para 53; the 2006 Recommendations of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (n 82), para 8; and the Ottawa Principles (n 85), principle 2.1.1.
100.
See Chap. 10, Sect. 10.2.5. See also the Commissioner’s Guidelines (n 41), para 4(i); the guidelines of the Council of Europe (n 69), Guideline II; GA Res 59/191 (n 18), preambular para 12; GA Res 61/171 (n 18) preambular para 13; GA Res 62/159 (n 18), preambular para 12; CHR Res 2005/80 (n 29), preambular para 15; Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, “Statement on Racial Discrimination and Measures to Combat Terrorism” in Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, UN Doc A/57/18 (2002), p. 107; the OSCE Manual (n 76), pp. 80–81; the 2006 Recommendations of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (n 82), para 8; the Ottawa Principles (n 85), principle 1.1; and Duffy (2005, pp. 348–350).
101.
See Chap. 10, Sect. 10.2.2.2. See also the Commissioner’s Guidelines (n 41), paras 3(b) and 3(j); the guidelines of the Council of Europe (n 69), Guideline II; and the Ottawa Principles (n 85), principles 2.1.1 and 2.1.2.
102.
See Report of the Special Rapporteur to the General Assembly (n 55) para 47; and the Sub-Commission Special Rapporteur’s 2005 report (n 48), para 33.
103.
See Council of Europe’s Guidelines (n 69), Guideline III(2); and the report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (n 77), paras 51 and 55.
104.
See Chap. 10, Sects. 10.2.3 and 10.3.2.
105.
See Chap. 10, Sect. 10.3.2.
106.
Ibid. See also the Commissioner’s Guidelines (n 41), paras 4(b) and 4(e); the guidelines of the Council of Europe (n 69), Guideline II(2); and the 2006 Recommendations of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (n 82), para 8.
107.
See, for example, the judgment of the Supreme Court of Canada to this effect in Suresh v Canada (n 8), 19.
108.
See Chap. 10, Sect. 10.2.3.1.
109.
See Chap. 10, Sect. 10.2.4. See also the Commissioner’s Guidelines (n 41), para 4(f).
110.
See Chap. 10, Sect. 10.2.4. See also the Commissioner’s Guidelines (n 41), paras 4(c), (d), (g) and (h); and Michaelson (2008).
111.
See Chap. 10, Sect. 10.2.4.
112.
See, for example, Commissioner’s Guidelines (n 41), paras 4(b) and 4(e)–(g).
113.
In R v Schwartz, for example, it was suggested that the statutory provision, which provided for a presumption that a person did not have a firearms license if he or she failed to produce one upon request, unnecessarily infringed the presumption of innocence. Counsel for Schwartz argued that police could simply check their computerized records to ascertain whether a license had indeed been obtained. McIntyre J of the Supreme Court of Canada stated that “[e]ven if there is merit in the suggestion… Parliament has made a reasonable choice in the matter and, in my view, it is not for the Court, in circumstances where the impugned provision clearly involves, at most, minimal – or even trivial – interference with the right guaranteed in the Charter, to postulate some alternative which in its view would offer a better solution to the problem”: R v Schwartz [1988] 2 SCR 443, 492–493.
114.
On those subjects, see: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, Mission to the United States of America, UN Doc A/HRCA/6/17/Add.3 (2007), chapters II, III and IV; Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, Mission to Israel, including visit to occupied Palestinian territory, UN Doc A/HRCA/6/17/Add.4 (2007), chapters IV and VI.

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Conte, A. (2010). Human Rights Compliance in the Fight Against Terrorism. In: Human Rights in the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-11608-7_13

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