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The European Court of Human Rights as a Pathway to Impunity for International Crimes pp 1–90Cite as

PART I: Selected Factors Facilitating Impunity for International Crimes Through the European Court of Human Rights

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Abstract

In Part 1 various key cases are discussed which concern the contentious issue of the legal legitimacy of the notion of universal civil and universal criminal jurisdiction and whether one or both such jurisdictions is established under the United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment and customary international law. Such absolute universal jurisdiction or, in some instances, a restricted version of universal jurisdiction allows for legal action to be brought in the national courts of a State other than that in which the offences occurred and against persons who are not the nationals of the forum State. Such legal actions include but are not limited to civil actions for damages, extradition requests regarding foreign nationals, and warrants for the arrest of foreign nationals accused of having committed international crimes outside the forum State. Some argue such jurisdiction is not barred by any sort of immunity and under the less restrictive notion of universal jurisdiction the legal action in the forum State may be initiated whether or not the accused has ever set foot in the jurisdiction of the forum State and regardless the nationality of the victim. Issues concerning the boundaries of State sovereignty, what constitutes an ‘official’ act by an agent of the State, the limits of personal immunity granted to sitting or former heads of State and other high officials or diplomats are addressed. The European Court of Human Rights approach to the issue of universal jurisdiction is shown to contribute to a lack of State accountability and ultimately, in many instances, to complete impunity for individual perpetrators of international crimes such as torture and war crimes.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. UN General Assembly Resolution 39/46, 10 December 1984, entering into force 26 June 1987. http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_cat39.htm. Accessed 17 June 2009.

  2. 2.

    McGregor (2007, pp. 903–919).

  3. 3.

    McGregor (2007, pp. 903–919).

  4. 4.

    McGregor (2007, p. 912).

  5. 5.

    McGregor (2007, p. 916).

  6. 6.

    McGregor (2007, p. 916).

  7. 7.

    Al-Adsani v. United Kingdom [2001] ECHR 752.

  8. 8.

    1978 U.K. State Immunity Act. http://www.law.berkeley.edu/faculty/ddcaron/Documents/RPID%20Documents/rp04038.html. Accessed 18 June 2009.

  9. 9.

    Al-Adsani v. United Kingdom [2001] ECHR 752, para 17.

  10. 10.

    Memo Concerning Proposed Amendments to Canada’s State Immunity Law, para 2 of Part IV. http://www.law.utoronto.ca/documents/ihrp/SIA_Introductorymemo.doc. Accessed 18 June 2009.

  11. 11.

    Al-Adsani v. United Kingdom [2001] ECHR 752, para 17.

  12. 12.

    Glueck (1946, p. 427).

  13. 13.

    United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. UN General Assembly Resolution 39/46, 10 December 1984, entering into force 26 June 1987. http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_cat39.htm. Accessed 17 June 2009.

  14. 14.

    Opinion of Lord Hoffman in Jones v. Ministry of the Interior Al-Mamlaka Al-Arabiya AS Suadiya (the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) and others [2006] UKHL 26, para 84.

  15. 15.

    United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. UN General Assembly Resolution 39/46, 10 December 1984, entering into force 26 June 1987. http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_cat39.htm. Accessed 17 June 2009.

  16. 16.

    Opinion of Lord Hoffman in Jones v. Ministry of the Interior Al-Mamlaka Al-Arabiya AS Suadiya (the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) and others [2006] UKHL 26, para 101.

  17. 17.

    Al-Adsani v. United Kingdom [2001] ECHR 752, para 18.

  18. 18.

    Al-Adsani v. United Kingdom [2001] ECHR 752, para 61.

  19. 19.

    European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (as amended by Protocol Number 11 and with protocols 1, 4, 6, 7, 12 and 13), entry into force 1 November 1998 (original Convention adopted by the Council of Europe 1950 and entered into force 3 September 1953). http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/D5CC24A7-DC13-4318-B457-5C9014916D7A/0/EnglishAnglais.pdf. Accessed 20 June 2009.

  20. 20.

    Al-Adsani v. United Kingdom [2001] ECHR 752, para 54–56.

  21. 21.

    Al-Adsani v. United Kingdom [2001] ECHR 752, para 39.

  22. 22.

    McGregor (2007, p. 912).

  23. 23.

    Prosecutor v. Furundzija, International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991, Trial Chamber judgment, 10 December 1998 at para 155. http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?docid=40276a8a4. Accessed 21 June 2009.

  24. 24.

    Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Vol. 1, p. 40, para 174 (Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee during March–April and August 1996) GAOR, 51st Sess. Supp. 22, UN Doc. A/51/22); UN Doc, A/CONF./283/2/Add. 1 (1998), Art. 19.

  25. 25.

    Opinion of Lord Bingham in Jones v. Ministry of the Interior Al-Mamlaka Al-Arabiya AS Suadiya (the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) and others [2006] UKHL 26, para 21.

  26. 26.

    Prosecutor v. Moinina Fofana and Allieu Kondewa, Civil Defense Forces (CDF) case, Special Court of Sierra Leone, (Case SCSL-04-14-A). http://www.sc-sl.org/CASES/CivilDefenceForcesCDFCompleted/tabid/104/Default.aspx.

  27. 27.

    Opinion of Lord Millet, Pinochet (3) at para 6 of Lord Millet’s opinion. http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199899/ldjudgmt/jd990324/pino1.htm. Accessed 21 June 2009.

  28. 28.

    United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. UN General Assembly Resolution 39/46, 10 December 1984, entering into force 26 June 1987. http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_cat39.htm. Accessed 17 June 2009.

  29. 29.

    Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Text of the Rome Statute circulated as document A/CONF.183/9 of 17 July 1998 and corrected by procès-verbaux of 10 November 1998, 12 July 1999, 30 November 1999, 8 May 2000, 17 January 2001 and 16 January 2002. The Statute entered into force on 1 July 2002. http://www.un.org/children/conflict/keydocuments/english/romestatuteofthe7.html. Accessed 19 June 2009.

  30. 30.

    International Law Commission report on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (2001), Commentary on para 2 of Article 4 in the Draft report cited in Jones v. Ministry of the Interior Al-Mamlaka Al-Arabiya AS Suadiya (the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) and others [2006] UKHL 26, para 12.

  31. 31.

    International Law Commission report on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (2001), Commentary on Article 7: Excess of authority or contravention of instructions. http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/draft%20articles/9_6_2001.pdf. Accessed 9 June 2009.

  32. 32.

    Opinion of Lord Browne-Wilkinson, 24 March 1999 in Pinochet (3), para 18. http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199899/ldjudgmt/jd990324/pino1.htm. Accessed 21 June 2009.

  33. 33.

    Opinion of Lord Justice Mance, Jones v. Ministry of the Interior Al-Mamlaka Al-Arabiya AS Suadiya (the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) and others, Court of Appeal, [2004] EWCA Civ 1394 para 71. http://www.hrothgar.co.uk/YAWS/reps/04a1394.htm. Accessed 24 June 2009.

  34. 34.

    Wirth (2002, pp. 877–893).

  35. 35.

    Spinedi (2002, pp. 895–899).

  36. 36.

    United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. UN General Assembly Resolution 39/46, 10 December 1984, entering into force 26 June 1987. http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_cat39.htm. Accessed 17 June 2009.

  37. 37.

    Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Text of the Rome Statute circulated as document A/CONF.183/9 of 17 July 1998 and corrected by procès-verbaux of 10 November 1998, 12 July 1999, 30 November 1999, 8 May 2000, 17 January 2001 and 16 January 2002. The Statute entered into force on 1 July 2002. http://www.un.org/children/conflict/keydocuments/english/romestatuteofthe7.html. Accessed 19 June 2009.

  38. 38.

    Compare Greenspan (1959, p. 420).

  39. 39.

    Jones v. Ministry of the Interior Al-Mamlaka Al-Arabiya AS Suadiya (the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) and others [2006] UKHL 26.

  40. 40.

    Al-Adsani v. United Kingdom [2001] ECHR 752.

  41. 41.

    Opinion of Lord Bingham in Jones v. Ministry of the Interior Al-Mamlaka Al-Arabiya AS Suadiya (the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) and others [2006] UKHL 26 at para 19 commenting on the decision by the House of Lords in the extradition case of Senator Pinochet.

  42. 42.

    Jones v. Ministry of the Interior Al-Mamlaka Al-Arabiya AS Suadiya (the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) and others [2006] UKHL 26.

  43. 43.

    Opinion of Lord Millet, 24 March 1999 in Pinochet (3), para 155. http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199899/ldjudgmt/jd990324/pino1.htm. Accessed 21 June 2009.

  44. 44.

    See de Oliveira Moll (2003, p. 581).

  45. 45.

    Report by the Secretary General (of the European Council on Human Rights) (SG/Inf (2006) 5, 28 February 2006) on the use of his powers under Article 52 of the European Convention on Human Rights, in the light of reports suggesting that individuals, notably persons suspected of involvement in acts of terrorism, may have been arrested and detained, or transported while deprived of their liberty, by or at the instigation of foreign agencies, with the active or passive co-operation of States Parties to the Convention or by States Parties themselves at their own initiative, without such deprivation of liberty having been acknowledged. https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?Ref=SG/Inf(2006)5&Language=lanEnglish&Ver=original&Site=COE&BackColorInternet=DBDCF2&BackColorIntranet=FDC864&BackColorLogged=FDC864, at para 101(iii). Accessed 22 June 2009.

  46. 46.

    Higgins (1982, p. 271).

  47. 47.

    Opinion of Lord Denning in Rahimtoola v. Nizam of Hyderabad [1958] AC 379 at 609.

  48. 48.

    Opinion of Justice Breyer in Solsa v. Alvarez – Machain (2004) 542 U.S. 692, p. 3.

  49. 49.

    Watts, Sir Arthur (1994, p. 82).

  50. 50.

    Opinion of Lord Hoffman in Jones v. Ministry of the Interior Al-Mamlaka Al-Arabiya AS Suadiya (the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) and others [2006] UKHL 26, para 74.

  51. 51.

    Memo Concerning Proposed Amendments to Canada’s State Immunity Law, Section X: Why the State rather than individuals? http://www.law.utoronto.ca/documents/ihrp/SIA_Introductorymemo.doc. Accessed 18 June 2009.

  52. 52.

    United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. UN General Assembly Resolution 39/46, 10 December 1984, entering into force 26 June 1987. Article 14. http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_cat39.htm. Accessed 17 June 2009.

  53. 53.

    Chatham House: State immunity: An update in light of the Jones case. http://www.chathamhouse.org.uk/files/3378_il211106.pdf.

  54. 54.

    Hall (2008, pp. 921–937).

  55. 55.

    Committee Against Torture, Conclusions and recommendations, 34th Sess., 2–20 May 2005, UN Doc. CAT/C/CR/34/CAN, 7 July 2005, paras 4(g), 5(f).

  56. 56.

    Democratic Republic of Congo v. Belgium, International Court of Justice judgment of 14 February 2002 (I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 3). http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=3&k=36&case=121&code=cobe&p3=4. Accessed 23 June 2009.

  57. 57.

    Geneva Conventions (Numbers I–IV), 12 August 1949. http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/genevaconventions. Accessed 23 June 2009.

  58. 58.

    Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol 1), Adopted on 8 June 1977 by the Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law applicable in Armed Conflicts, entry into force 7 December 1979. http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/93.htm. Accessed 23 June 2009.

  59. 59.

    Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), Adopted on 8 June 1977 by the Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law applicable in Armed Conflicts entry into force 7 December 1978. http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/94.htm. Accessed 23 June 2009.

  60. 60.

    Democratic Republic of Congo v. Belgium, International Court of Justice judgment of 14 February 2002 (I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 8, para 11, item 1). http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=3&k=36&case=121&code=cobe&p3=4. Accessed 23 June 2009.

  61. 61.

    Democratic Republic of Congo v. Belgium, International Court of Justice judgment of 14 February 2002 (I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 14, para 31). http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=3&k=36&case=121&code=cobe&p3=4. Accessed 23 June 2009.

  62. 62.

    Democratic Republic of Congo v. Belgium, International Court of Justice judgment of 14 February 2002 (I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 21, para 51). http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=3&k=36&case=121&code=cobe&p3=4. Accessed 23 June 2009.

  63. 63.

    Democratic Republic of Congo v. Belgium, International Court of Justice judgment of 14 February 2002 (I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 21, para 53). http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=3&k=36&case=121&code=cobe&p3=4. Accessed 23 June 2009.

  64. 64.

    Democratic Republic of Congo v. Belgium, International Court of Justice judgment of 14 February 2002 (I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 25, para 59). http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=3&k=36&case=121&code=cobe&p3=4. Accessed 23 June 2009.

  65. 65.

    Democratic Republic of Congo v. Belgium, International Court of Justice judgment of 14 February 2002 (I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 25, para 60–61). http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=3&k=36&case=121&code=cobe&p3=4. Accessed 23 June 2009.

  66. 66.

    Galicki (2006).

  67. 67.

    Ould Dah v. France, (Application no 13113/03), European Court of Human Rights, 17 March 2009. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/49d474a12.html. Accessed 27 June 2009 (French only).

  68. 68.

    Galicki (2006, para 52 and 54, p. 16).

  69. 69.

    Galicki (2006, para 55, pp. 16–17).

  70. 70.

    Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Application 5310/71), European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 1977. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7004.html. Accessed 27 June 2009, para 221–222; see also para 97.

  71. 71.

    Geneva Conventions (Numbers I–IV), 12 August 1949. http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/genevaconventions. Accessed 23 June 2009.

  72. 72.

    European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (as amended by Protocol Number 11 and with protocols 1, 4, 6, 7, 12 and 13), entry into force 1 November 1998 (original Convention adopted by the Council of Europe 1950 and entered into force 3 September 1953). http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/D5CC24A7-DC13-4318-B457-5C9014916D7A/0/EnglishAnglais.pdf. Accessed 20 June 2009.

  73. 73.

    Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Application 5310/71), European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 1977. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7004.html. Accessed 27 June 2009, para 11.

  74. 74.

    Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Application 5310/71), European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 1977. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7004.html. Accessed 27 June 2009, para 16.

  75. 75.

    Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Application 5310/71), European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 1977. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7004.html. Accessed 27 June 2009, para 12.

  76. 76.

    Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Application 5310/71), European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 1977. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7004.html. Accessed 27 June 2009, para 96.

  77. 77.

    Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Application 5310/71), European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 1977. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7004.html. Accessed 27 June 2009, para 154.

  78. 78.

    Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Text of the Rome Statute circulated as document A/CONF.183/9 of 17 July 1998 and corrected by procès-verbaux of 10 November 1998, 12 July 1999, 30 November 1999, 8 May 2000, 17 January 2001 and 16 January 2002. The Statute entered into force on 1 July 2002. http://www.un.org/children/conflict/keydocuments/english/romestatuteofthe7.html. Accessed 19 June 2009.

  79. 79.

    Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Application 5310/71), European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 1977. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7004.html. Accessed 27 June 2009, para 159.

  80. 80.

    Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Application 5310/71), European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 1977. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7004.html. Accessed 27 June 2009, para 167.

  81. 81.

    Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Application 5310/71), European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 1977. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7004.html. Accessed 27 June 2009, para 161(3).

  82. 82.

    Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Application 5310/71), European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 1977. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7004.html. Accessed 27 June 2009, para 167.

  83. 83.

    Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Application 5310/71), European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 1977. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7004.html. Accessed 27 June 2009, para 12 of the Separate Opinion of Judge Fitzmaurice.

  84. 84.

    United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. UN General Assembly Resolution 39/46, 10 December 1984, entering into force 26 June 1987. http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_cat39.htm. Accessed 17 June 2009.

  85. 85.

    Roth (2008, pp. 215–239).

  86. 86.

    Geneva Conventions Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (Numbers I–IV), 12 August 1949 (entry into force 21 October 1950). http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/genevaconventions. Accessed 23 June 2009.

  87. 87.

    See International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Decision on the Defense Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction in the Tadic case (IT-94-1-A) Appeals Chamber 2, 2 October 1994, para 94.

  88. 88.

    Roth (2008, p. 218).

  89. 89.

    United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. UN General Assembly Resolution 39/46, 10 December 1984, entering into force 26 June 1987. http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_cat39.htm. Accessed 17 June 2009.

  90. 90.

    Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Application 5310/71), European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 1977. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7004.html. Accessed 27 June 2009, para 167.

  91. 91.

    Roth (2008, p. 217).

  92. 92.

    Roth (2008, p. 217).

  93. 93.

    Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Application 5310/71), European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 1977. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7004.html. Accessed 27 June 2009, separate opinion of Judge O’Donoghue.

  94. 94.

    Roth (2008, p. 227).

  95. 95.

    Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Application 5310/71), European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 1977. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7004.html. Accessed 27 June 2009, para 246 (10).

  96. 96.

    Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Application 5310/71), European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 1977. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7004.html. Accessed 27 June 2009, para 207.

  97. 97.

    Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Application 5310/71), European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 1977. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7004.html. Accessed 27 June 2009, separate opinion of Judge O’Donoghue.

  98. 98.

    European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (as amended by Protocol Number 11 and with protocols 1, 4, 6, 7, 12 and 13), entry into force 1 November 1998 (original Convention adopted by the Council of Europe 1950 and entered into force 3 September 1953). http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/D5CC24A7-DC13-4318-B457-5C9014916D7A/0/EnglishAnglais.pdf. Accessed 20 June 2009.

  99. 99.

    Colandrea (2007, pp. 396–411).

  100. 100.

    Assanidze v. Georgia European Court of Human Rights (Application 71503/01), Grand Chamber judgment of 8 April 2004. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?action=html&documentId=699751&portal=hbkm&source=externalbydocnumber&table=1132746FF1FE2A468ACCBCD1763D4D8149. Accessed 1 July 2009.

  101. 101.

    Assanidze v. Georgia European Court of Human Rights (Application 71503/01), Grand Chamber judgment of 8 April 2004. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?action=html&documentId=699751&portal=hbkm&source=externalbydocnumber&table=1132746FF1FE2A468ACCBCD1763D4D8149. Accessed 1 July 2009, para 202.

  102. 102.

    Assanidze v. Georgia European Court of Human Rights (Application 71503/01), Grand Chamber judgment of 8 April 2004. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?action=html&documentId=699751&portal=hbkm&source=externalbydocnumber&table=1132746FF1FE2A468ACCBCD1763D4D8149. Accessed 1 July 2009, para 202–203.

  103. 103.

    Magomed Musayev and Others v. Russia (Application 8979/02), Chamber judgment of the European Court of Human Rights, 23 October 2008. http://www.ius-software.si/EUII/EUCHR/dokumenti/2008/10/CASE_OF_MAGOMED_MUSAYEV_AND_OTHERS_v._RUSSIA_23_10_2008.html.

  104. 104.

    Colandrea (2007, pp. 396–411).

  105. 105.

    European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (as amended by Protocol Number 11 and with protocols 1, 4, 6, 7, 12 and 13), entry into force 1 November 1998 (original Convention adopted by the Council of Europe 1950 and entered into force 3 September 1953). http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/D5CC24A7-DC13-4318-B457-5C9014916D7A/0/EnglishAnglais.pdf. Accessed 20 June 2009.

  106. 106.

    Compare Colandrea (2007, Sect. 5 “Individual and General Interests in the European System for the protection of Human Rights”).

  107. 107.

    European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (as amended by Protocol Number 11 and with protocols 1, 4, 6, 7, 12 and 13), entry into force 1 November 1998 (original Convention adopted by the Council of Europe 1950 and entered into force 3 September 1953), Article 37(c). http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/D5CC24A7-DC13-4318-B457-5C9014916D7A/0/EnglishAnglais.pdf. Accessed 20 June 2009.

  108. 108.

    Malinverni (2008, p. 1).

  109. 109.

    Colandrea (2007, p. 406).

  110. 110.

    Thiemann and Others v. Norway (Application 18712/03), European Court of Human Rights Decision regarding admissibility, Heard 8 March 2007. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/07_4/Thiermann.pdf. Accessed 2 July 2009, Facts, p. 4.

  111. 111.

    Opinion of the Oslo City Court in Thiemann and Others v. Norway (Application 18712/03), European Court of Human Rights Decision regarding admissibility, Heard 8 March 2007. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/07_4/Thiermann.pdf. Accessed 2 July 2009, cited at p. 9.

  112. 112.

    Thiemann and Others v. Norway (Application 18712/03), European Court of Human Rights Decision regarding admissibility, Heard 8 March 2007. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/07_4/Thiermann.pdf. Accessed 2 July 2009, p. 11.

  113. 113.

    Thiemann and Others v. Norway (Application 18712/03), European Court of Human Rights Decision regarding admissibility, Heard 8 March 2007. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/07_4/Thiermann.pdf. Accessed 2 July 2009, p. 11.

  114. 114.

    Thiemann and Others v. Norway (Application 18712/03), European Court of Human Rights Decision regarding admissibility, Heard 8 March 2007. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/07_4/Thiermann.pdf. Accessed 2 July 2009, p. 12.

  115. 115.

    Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted and proclaimed by the General Assembly of the United Nations, 10 December 1948. http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/#atop. Accessed 5 July 2009.

  116. 116.

    Preamble, Convention IV respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, signed at The Hague, 18 October 1907, in Schindler and Toman (2004, p. 55).

  117. 117.

    Kolb (1998, pp. 409–419).

  118. 118.

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  1. Faculty of Education, Lakehead University, 955 Oliver Road, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada, P7B 5E1

    Dr. Sonja C. Grover

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Grover, S.C. (2010). PART I: Selected Factors Facilitating Impunity for International Crimes Through the European Court of Human Rights. In: The European Court of Human Rights as a Pathway to Impunity for International Crimes. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-10799-3_1

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