Abstract
Stem cells are defined as undifferentiated cells that have the capacity to self-renew and to differentiate into various mature cells at a single cell level [118]. Stem cells support normal embryogenesis and postnatal life. Stem cells serve to renew tissue throughout an individual’s postnatal life by replacing the cells that are lost owing to everyday wear and tear in our bodies. Bone marrow contains two types of stem cells: hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). HSCs are able to give rise to all cells in the hematopoietic system [99, 100]. Injection of a single mCD34(lo/-), c-Kit+, Sca-1(+), lineage markers negative (Lin-) cell resulted in long-term reconstitution of the lymphohematopoietic system [78]. MSCs are multipotent, might be immune privileged [59, 81], and can be expanded easily ex vivo. MSCs isolated from either adult bone marrow or other origin such as adipose tissue have shown a great potential for cell therapy because these cells possess multipotent capabilities [81], proliferate rapidly, induce angiogenesis, and differentiate into myogenic and other cells [111, 115]. MSCs have been widely used for tissue engineering. In this chapter, we focus on MSCs.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Abbott JD et al. Stromal cell-derived factor-1alpha plays a critical role in stem cell recruitment to the heart after myocardial infarction but is not sufficient to induce homing in the absence of injury. Circulation. 2004;110(21): 3300–5.
Alt E, et al. Effect of freshly isolated autologous tissue resident stromal cells on cardiac function and perfusion following acute myocardial infarction. Int J Cardiol. 2009; doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2009.03.12.
Altman AM et al. Dermal matrix as a carrier for in vivo delivery of human adipose-derived stem cells. Biomaterials. 2008;29(10):1431–42.
Altman AM et al. Human adipose-derived stem cells adhere to acellular dermal matrix. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2008;32(4): 698–9.
Altman AM et al. IFATS collection: human adipose-derived stem cells seeded on a silk fibroin-chitosan scaffold enhance wound repair in a murine soft tissue injury model. Stem Cells. 2009;27(1):250–8.
Amado LC et al. Cardiac repair with intramyocardial injection of allogeneic mesenchymal stem cells after myocardial infarction. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2005;102(32): 11474–9.
Amos PJ, et al. IFATS series: the role of human adipose-derived stromal cells in inflammatory microvascular remodeling and evidence of a perivascular phenotype. Stem Cells. 2008;26(10):2682–90.
Assmus B et al. Transplantation of progenitor cells and regeneration enhancement in acute myocardial infarction (TOPCARE-AMI). Circulation. 2002;106(24):3009–17.
Bai X, Yan Y, Song YH, Seidensticker M, Rabinovich B, Metzele R, Bankson JA, Vykoukal D, Alt E. Both cultured and freshly isolated adipose tissue-derived stem cells enhance cardiac function after acute myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J. 2010;31(4):489–501. Epub 2009 Dec 25.PMID: 20037143.
Bai X et al. Genetically selected stem cells from human adipose tissue express cardiac markers. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2007;353(3):665–71.
Bai X et al. Electrophysiological properties of human adipose tissue-derived stem cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2007;293(5):C1539–50.
Bartholomew A et al. Mesenchymal stem cells suppress lymphocyte proliferation in vitro and prolong skin graft survival in vivo. Exp Hematol. 2002;30(1):42–8.
Bi Y et al. Identification of tendon stem/progenitor cells and the role of the extracellular matrix in their niche. Nat Med. 2007;13(10):1219–27.
Billings Jr E, May Jr JW. Historical review and present status of free fat graft autotransplantation in plastic and reconstructive surgery. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1989;83(2):368–81.
Breitbach M et al. Potential risks of bone marrow cell transplantation into infarcted hearts. Blood. 2007;110(4): 1362–9.
Bunnell BA et al. Differentiation of adipose stem cells. Methods Mol Biol. 2008;456:155–71.
Cao JM et al. Relationship between regional cardiac hyperinnervation and ventricular arrhythmia. Circulation. 2000; 101(16):1960–9.
Cho SW et al. Engineering of volume-stable adipose tissues. Biomaterials. 2005;26(17):3577–85.
Corre J et al. Human subcutaneous adipose cells support complete differentiation but not self-renewal of hematopoietic progenitors. J Cell Physiol. 2006;208(2):282–8.
Cousin B et al. Reconstitution of lethally irradiated mice by cells isolated from adipose tissue. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2003;301(4):1016–22.
Dimmeler S, Zeiher AM, Schneider MD. Unchain my heart: the scientific foundations of cardiac repair. J Clin Invest. 2005;115(3):572–83.
Dominici M et al. Minimal criteria for defining multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells. The International Society for Cellular Therapy position statement. Cytotherapy. 2006; 8(4):315–7.
Erickson GR et al. Chondrogenic potential of adipose tissue-derived stromal cells in vitro and in vivo. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2002;290(2):763–9.
Ferrari G et al. Muscle regeneration by bone marrow-derived myogenic progenitors. Science. 1998;279(5356):1528–30.
Fotuhi P, Song YH, Alt E. Electrophysiological consequence of adipose-derived stem cell transplantation in infarcted porcine myocardium. Europace. 2007;9(12):1218–21.
Frangioni JV, Hajjar RJ. In vivo tracking of stem cells for clinical trials in cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2004; 110(21):3378–83.
Freyman T et al. A quantitative, randomized study evaluating three methods of mesenchymal stem cell delivery following myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J. 2006;27(9): 1114–22.
Friedenstein AJ et al. Precursors for fibroblasts in different populations of hematopoietic cells as detected by the in vitro colony assay method. Exp Hematol. 1974;2(2):83–92.
Garcia-Dorado D et al. Analysis of myocardial oedema by magnetic resonance imaging early after coronary artery occlusion with or without reperfusion. Cardiovasc Res. 1993;27(8):1462–9.
Garcion E et al. Generation of an environmental niche for neural stem cell development by the extracellular matrix molecule tenascin C. Development. 2004;131(14):3423–32.
Gimble JM, Katz AJ, Bunnell BA. Adipose-derived stem cells for regenerative medicine. Circ Res. 2007;100(9):1249–60.
Gnecchi M et al. Paracrine action accounts for marked protection of ischemic heart by Akt-modified mesenchymal stem cells. Nat Med. 2005;11(4):367–8.
Gronthos S, Simmons PJ. The growth factor requirements of STRO-1-positive human bone marrow stromal precursors under serum-deprived conditions in vitro. Blood. 1995;85(4): 929–40.
Guilak F et al. Clonal analysis of the differentiation potential of human adipose-derived adult stem cells. J Cell Physiol. 2006;206(1):229–37.
Halvorsen YC, Gimble JM. Adipose-derived stromal cells–their utility and potential in bone formation. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2000;24 Suppl 4:S41–4.
Halvorsen YD et al. Thiazolidinediones and glucocorticoids synergistically induce differentiation of human adipose tissue stromal cells: biochemical, cellular, and molecular analysis. Metabolism. 2001;50(4):407–13.
Hickerson WL, et al. Cultured epidermal autografts and allodermis combination for permanent burn wound coverage. Burns. 1994;20(Suppl 1):S52–5; discussion S55–6.
Hofmann M et al. Monitoring of bone marrow cell homing into the infarcted human myocardium. Circulation. 2005;111(17):2198–202.
Huang JI, et al. Rat extramedullary adipose tissue as a source of osteochondrogenic progenitor cells. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2002;109(3):1033–41; discussion 1042–3.
Izumi K, et al. Ex vivo development of a composite human oral mucosal equivalent. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1999;57(5): 571–7; discussion 577–8.
Jensen UB, Lowell S, Watt FM. The spatial relationship between stem cells and their progeny in the basal layer of human epidermis: a new view based on whole-mount labelling and lineage analysis. Development. 1999;126(11): 2409–18.
Jiang Y et al. Pluripotency of mesenchymal stem cells derived from adult marrow. Nature. 2002;418(6893):41–9.
Jones PH, Watt FM. Separation of human epidermal stem cells from transit amplifying cells on the basis of differences in integrin function and expression. Cell. 1993;73(4): 713–24.
Kajstura J et al. Bone marrow cells differentiate in cardiac cell lineages after infarction independently of cell fusion. Circ Res. 2005;96(1):127–37.
Kamihata H et al. Implantation of bone marrow mononuclear cells into ischemic myocardium enhances collateral perfusion and regional function via side supply of angioblasts, angiogenic ligands, and cytokines. Circulation. 2001; 104(9):1046–52.
Kang SK et al. Neurogenesis of Rhesus adipose stromal cells. J Cell Sci. 2004;117(Pt 18):4289–99.
Kiger AA et al. Stem cell self-renewal specified by JAK-STAT activation in response to a support cell cue. Science. 2001;294(5551):2542–5.
Kilroy GE et al. Cytokine profile of human adipose-derived stem cells: expression of angiogenic, hematopoietic, and pro-inflammatory factors. J Cell Physiol. 2007;212(3):702–9.
Kim WS et al. Wound healing effect of adipose-derived stem cells: a critical role of secretory factors on human dermal fibroblasts. J Dermatol Sci. 2007;48(1):15–24.
Kim Y et al. Direct comparison of human mesenchymal stem cells derived from adipose tissues and bone marrow in mediating neovascularization in response to vascular ischemia. Cell Physiol Biochem. 2007;20(6):867–76.
Kocher AA et al. Neovascularization of ischemic myocardium by human bone-marrow-derived angioblasts prevents cardiomyocyte apoptosis, reduces remodeling and improves cardiac function. Nat Med. 2001;7(4):430–6.
Krampera M et al. Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells inhibit the response of naive and memory antigen-specific T cells to their cognate peptide. Blood. 2003;101(9): 3722–9.
Krampera M et al. Induction of neural-like differentiation in human mesenchymal stem cells derived from bone marrow, fat, spleen and thymus. Bone. 2007;40(2):382–90.
Kuethe F et al. Lack of regeneration of myocardium by autologous intracoronary mononuclear bone marrow cell transplantation in humans with large anterior myocardial infarctions. Int J Cardiol. 2004;97(1):123–27.
Kuznetsov SA, Friedenstein AJ, Robey PG. Factors required for bone marrow stromal fibroblast colony formation in vitro. Br J Haematol. 1997;97(3):561–70.
Kuznetsov SA et al. Circulating skeletal stem cells. J Cell Biol. 2001;153(5):1133–40.
Lee JH, Kemp DM. Human adipose-derived stem cells display myogenic potential and perturbed function in hypoxic conditions. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2006;341(3):8 82–8.
Lee RH et al. Intravenous hMSCs improve myocardial infarction in mice because cells embolized in lung are activated to secrete the anti-inflammatory protein TSG-6. Cell Stem Cell. 2009;5(1):54–63.
Liechty KW et al. Human mesenchymal stem cells engraft and demonstrate site-specific differentiation after in utero transplantation in sheep. Nat Med. 2000;6(11):1282–6.
Locklin RM, Oreffo RO, Triffitt JT. Effects of TGFbeta and bFGF on the differentiation of human bone marrow stromal fibroblasts. Cell Biol Int. 1999;23(3):185–94.
Losordo DW et al. Phase 1/2 placebo-controlled, double-blind, dose-escalating trial of myocardial vascular endothelial growth factor 2 gene transfer by catheter delivery in patients with chronic myocardial ischemia. Circulation. 2002;105(17):2012–8.
Makino S et al. Cardiomyocytes can be generated from marrow stromal cells in vitro. J Clin Invest. 1999;103(5): 697–705.
Mangi AA et al. Mesenchymal stem cells modified with Akt prevent remodeling and restore performance of infarcted hearts. Nat Med. 2003;9(9):1195–201.
Martin I et al. Fibroblast growth factor-2 supports ex vivo expansion and maintenance of osteogenic precursors from human bone marrow. Endocrinology. 1997;138(10):4456–62.
Martin-Rendon E et al. 5-Azacytidine-treated human mesenchymal stem/progenitor cells derived from umbilical cord, cord blood and bone marrow do not generate cardiomyocytes in vitro at high frequencies. Vox Sang. 2008;95(2): 137–48.
McIntosh K et al. The immunogenicity of human adipose-derived cells: temporal changes in vitro. Stem Cells. 2006;24(5):1246–53.
Miranville A et al. Improvement of postnatal neovascularization by human adipose tissue-derived stem cells. Circulation. 2004;110(3):349–55.
Mitchell JB et al. Immunophenotype of human adipose-derived cells: temporal changes in stromal-associated and stem cell-associated markers. Stem Cells. 2006;24(2): 376–85.
Miyahara Y et al. Monolayered mesenchymal stem cells repair scarred myocardium after myocardial infarction. Nat Med. 2006;12(4):459–65.
Moelker AD et al. Intracoronary delivery of umbilical cord blood derived unrestricted somatic stem cells is not suitable to improve LV function after myocardial infarction in swine. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2007;42(4):735–45.
Muehlberg F et al. Tissue resident stem cells promote breast cancer growth and metastasis. Carcinogenesis. 2009;30(4): 589–97.
Musaro A et al. Stem cell-mediated muscle regeneration is enhanced by local isoform of insulin-like growth factor 1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004;101(5):1206–10.
Nuttall ME et al. Human trabecular bone cells are able to express both osteoblastic and adipocytic phenotype: implications for osteopenic disorders. J Bone Miner Res. 1998;13(3):371–82.
Oedayrajsingh-Varma MJ et al. Adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cell yield and growth characteristics are affected by the tissue-harvesting procedure. Cytotherapy. 2006;8(2):166–77.
Oreffo RO et al. Effects of interferon alpha on human osteoprogenitor cell growth and differentiation in vitro. J Cell Biochem. 1999;74(3):372–85.
Orlic D et al. Bone marrow cells regenerate infarcted myocardium. Nature. 2001;410(6829):701–5.
Orlic D et al. Mobilized bone marrow cells repair the infarcted heart, improving function and survival. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98(18):10344–9.
Osawa M et al. Long-term lymphohematopoietic reconstitution by a single CD34-low/negative hematopoietic stem cell. Science. 1996;273(5272):242–5.
Park SR, Oreffo RO, Triffitt JT. Interconversion potential of cloned human marrow adipocytes in vitro. Bone. 1999;24(6): 549–54.
Pinilla S et al. Tissue resident stem cells produce CCL5 under the influence of cancer cells and thereby promote breast cancer cell invasion. Cancer Lett. 2009;284(1): 80–5.
Pittenger MF et al. Multilineage potential of adult human mesenchymal stem cells. Science. 1999;284(5411):143–7.
Planat-Benard V et al. Plasticity of human adipose lineage cells toward endothelial cells: physiological and therapeutic perspectives. Circulation. 2004;109(5):656–63.
Pricola KL et al. Interleukin-6 maintains bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cell stemness by an ERK1/2-dependent mechanism. J Cell Biochem. 2009;108(3):577–88.
Rangappa S et al. Cardiomyocyte-mediated contact programs human mesenchymal stem cells to express cardiogenic phenotype. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2003;126(1):124–32.
Rehman J et al. Secretion of angiogenic and antiapoptotic factors by human adipose stromal cells. Circulation. 2004; 109(10):1292–8.
Reyes M et al. Purification and ex vivo expansion of postnatal human marrow mesodermal progenitor cells. Blood. 2001;98(9):2615–25.
Rickard DJ et al. Induction of rapid osteoblast differentiation in rat bone marrow stromal cell cultures by dexamethasone and BMP-2. Dev Biol. 1994;161(1):218–28.
Rochitte CE et al. Magnitude and time course of microvascular obstruction and tissue injury after acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1998;98(10):1006–14.
Ryden M et al. Functional characterization of human mesenchymal stem cell-derived adipocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2003;311(2):391–7.
Sadat S et al. The cardioprotective effect of mesenchymal stem cells is mediated by IGF-I and VEGF. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2007;363(3):674–9.
Safford KM et al. Neurogenic differentiation of murine and human adipose-derived stromal cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2002;294(2):371–9.
Sanchez-Ramos J et al. Adult bone marrow stromal cells differentiate into neural cells in vitro. Exp Neurol. 2000;164(2): 247–56.
Schimrosczyk K et al. Liposome-mediated transfection with extract from neonatal rat cardiomyocytes induces transdifferentiation of human adipose-derived stem cells into cardiomyocytes. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 2008;68(6): 464–72.
Scutt A, Zeschnigk M, Bertram P. PGE2 induces the transition from non-adherent to adherent bone marrow mesenchymal precursor cells via a cAMP/EP2-mediated mechanism. Prostaglandins. 1995;49(6):383–95.
Sekiya I et al. Adipogenic differentiation of human adult stem cells from bone marrow stroma (MSCs). J Bone Miner Res. 2004;19(2):256–64.
Sen A et al. Adipogenic potential of human adipose derived stromal cells from multiple donors is heterogeneous. J Cell Biochem. 2001;81(2):312–9.
Seo MJ et al. Differentiation of human adipose stromal cells into hepatic lineage in vitro and in vivo. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2005;328(1):258–64.
Shim WS et al. Ex vivo differentiation of human adult bone marrow stem cells into cardiomyocyte-like cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2004;324(2):481–8.
Spangrude GJ, Heimfeld S, Weissman IL. Purification and characterization of mouse hematopoietic stem cells. Science. 1988;241(4861):58–62.
Sutherland HJ et al. Characterization and partial purification of human marrow cells capable of initiating long-term hematopoiesis in vitro. Blood. 1989;74(5):1563–70.
Talens-Visconti R et al. Human mesenchymal stem cells from adipose tissue: differentiation into hepatic lineage. Toxicol In Vitro. 2007;21(2):324–9.
Timper K et al. Human adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells differentiate into insulin, somatostatin, and glucagon expressing cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2006;341(4):1135–40.
Toma C et al. Human mesenchymal stem cells differentiate to a cardiomyocyte phenotype in the adult murine heart. Circulation. 2002;105(1):93–8.
Traktuev DO et al. A population of multipotent CD34-positive adipose stromal cells share pericyte and mesenchymal surface markers, reside in a periendothelial location, and stabilize endothelial networks. Circ Res. 2008;102(1): 77–85.
Tsutsumi S et al. Retention of multilineage differentiation potential of mesenchymal cells during proliferation in response to FGF. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2001; 288(2):413–9.
Tulina N, Matunis E. Control of stem cell self-renewal in Drosophila spermatogenesis by JAK-STAT signaling. Science. 2001;294(5551):2546–9.
Valina C et al. Intracoronary administration of autologous adipose tissue derived stem cells improves left ventricular function. Perfusion and remodeling after acute myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J. 2007;28:2667–77.
Vassilopoulos G, Wang PR, Russell DW. Transplanted bone marrow regenerates liver by cell fusion. Nature. 2003;422(6934):901–4.
von Heimburg D et al. Oxygen consumption in undifferentiated versus differentiated adipogenic mesenchymal precursor cells. Respir Physiol Neurobiol. 2005;146(2–3):107–16.
Vulliet PR et al. Intra-coronary arterial injection of mesenchymal stromal cells and microinfarction in dogs. Lancet. 2004;363(9411):783–4.
Wakitani S, Saito T, Caplan AI. Myogenic cells derived from rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells exposed to 5-azacytidine. Muscle Nerve. 1995;18(12):1417–26.
Walsh S et al. Expression of the developmental markers STRO-1 and alkaline phosphatase in cultures of human marrow stromal cells: regulation by fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-2 and relationship to the expression of FGF receptors 1-4. Bone. 2000;27(2):185–95.
Walsh S et al. TGFbeta1 limits the expansion of the osteoprogenitor fraction in cultures of human bone marrow stromal cells. Cell Tissue Res. 2003;311(2):187–98.
Wang EA et al. Bone morphogenetic protein-2 causes commitment and differentiation in C3H10T1/2 and 3T3 cells. Growth Factors. 1993;9(1):57–71.
Wang JS et al. Marrow stromal cells for cellular cardiomyoplasty: feasibility and potential clinical advantages. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2000;120(5):999–1005.
Wang X et al. Cell fusion is the principal source of bone-marrow-derived hepatocytes. Nature. 2003;422(6934):897–901.
Wehling N et al. Interleukin-1beta and tumor necrosis factor alpha inhibit chondrogenesis by human mesenchymal stem cells through NF-kappaB-dependent pathways. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;60(3):801–12.
Weissman IL. Translating stem and progenitor cell biology to the clinic: barriers and opportunities. Science. 2000;287(5457):1442–6.
Wickham MQ, et al. Multipotent stromal cells derived from the infrapatellar fat pad of the knee. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2003;(412):196–212.
Wollert KC et al. Intracoronary autologous bone-marrow cell transfer after myocardial infarction: the BOOST randomised controlled clinical trial. Lancet. 2004;364(9429):141–8.
Yoon J et al. Differentiation, engraftment and functional effects of pre-treated mesenchymal stem cells in a rat myocardial infarct model. Acta Cardiol. 2005;60(3):277–84.
Young HE et al. Human pluripotent and progenitor cells display cell surface cluster differentiation markers CD10, CD13, CD56, and MHC class-I. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1999;221(1):63–71.
Yuan A et al. Transfer of microRNAs by embryonic stem cell microvesicles. PLoS One. 2009;4(3):e4722.
Yuasa S et al. Transient inhibition of BMP signaling by Noggin induces cardiomyocyte differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells. Nat Biotechnol. 2005;23(5):607–11.
Zuk PA et al. Multilineage cells from human adipose tissue: implications for cell-based therapies. Tissue Eng. 2001;7(2): 211–28.
Zuk PA et al. Human adipose tissue is a source of multipotent stem cells. Mol Biol Cell. 2002;13(12):4279–95.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Springer Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Song, YH., Prantl, L., Alt, E. (2011). Differentiation and Plasticity of Stem Cells for Tissue Engineering. In: Pallua, N., Suscheck, C. (eds) Tissue Engineering. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-02824-3_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-02824-3_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-02823-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-02824-3
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)