Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Physiological and Molecular Aspects of Ochratoxin A Biosynthesis

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Physiology and Genetics

Part of the book series: The Mycota ((MYCOTA,volume 15))

Abstract

Ochratoxin is an important mycotoxin produced mainly by several Aspergilli and two Penicillium species. It has nephrotoxic activities and it is thought to be a causative agent for the occurrence of an endemic disease, the so-called Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN). Ochratoxin A is a polyketide secondary metabolite coupled to the amino acid phenylalanine. On the molecular level it blocks the translation process by competitive inhibition of the phenylalanine t-RNA synthetases in eukaryotic cells. Compared to the other important mycotoxins like the aflatoxins, trichothecenes and fumonisins, not that much is known about the molecular background of ochratoxin A biosynthesis. Recently a part of the gene cluster in the ochratoxin A biosynthesis pathway in Penicillium was identified. In addition the polyketide synthase gene of A. ochraceus was cloned, giving a first insight into the genetic background of ochratoxin A biosynthesis in both genera. Interestingly the identified genes differ considerably between the two genera. It is known that environmental factors have a profound influence on the regulation of mycotoxin biosynthetic genes. Extensive data about the influence of growth factors on ochratoxin A biosynthesis are available. Based on this information and on new data about the regulation of the expression of ochratoxin A biosynthesis genes in Penicillia and Aspergilli, models can be generated which describe the correlation between environmental factors, gene activation and ochratoxin biosynthesis. This chapter reviews the current knowledge of the biology of ochratoxin biosynthesis by Aspergillus and Penicillium.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 229.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abarca ML, Bragulat MR, Castella G, Cabanes FJ (1994) Ochratoxin A production by strains of Aspergillus niger ver. niger. Appl Environ Microbiol 60:2650–2652

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abarca ML, Accensi F, Bragulat MR, Castella G, Cabanes FJ (2003) Aspergillus carbonarius as the main source of ochratoxin A contamination in dried vine fruits from the Spanish market. J Food Protect 66:504–506

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Abarca ML, Accensi F, Cano J, Cabanes FJ (2004) Taxonomy and significance of black aspergilli. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 86:33–49

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Accensi F, Cano J, Figuera L, Abarca ML, Cabanes FJ (1999) New PCR method to differentiate species in the Aspergillus niger aggregate. FEMS Microbiol Lett 180:191–196

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arroyo M, Aldred D, Magan N (2003) Impact of environmental factors and preservatives on growth and ochratoxin A production by Aspergillus ochraceus in wheat-based media. Aspects Appl Biol 68:169–174

    Google Scholar 

  • Arst HN, Penalva MA (2003) pH regulation in Aspergillus and parallels with higher eukaryotic regulatory systems. Trends Genet 19:224–231

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Asao T, Wogan GN, Chang SB, Buchi G, Wick EL, Abdelkad MM (1963) Aflatoxin B and G. J Am Chem Soc 85:1706–1963

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Atoui A, Dao HP, Mathieu F, Lebrihi A (2006) Amplification and diversity analysis of ketosynthase domains of putative polyketide synthase genes in Aspergillus ochraceus and Aspergillus carbonarius producers of ochratoxin A. Mol Nutr Food Res 50:488–493

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Atoui A, Mathieu F, Lebrihi A (2007) Targeting a polyketide synthase gene for Aspergillus carbonarius quantification and ochratoxin A assessment in grapes using real-time PCR. Int J Food Microbiol 115:313–318

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Battilani P, Giorni P, Pietri A (2003) Epidemiology of toxin-producing fungi and ochratoxin A occurrence in grape. Eur J Plant Pathol 109:715–722

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett JW, Christensen SB (1983) New perspectives on aflatoxin biosynthesis. Adv Appl Microbiol 29:53–92

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatnagar D, Ehrlich KC, Cleveland TE (2003) Molecular genetic analysis and regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 61:83–93

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatnagar D, Carry JW, Ehrlich K, Yu J, Cleveland TE (2006) Understanding the genetics of regulation of aflatoxin production and Aspergillus flavus development. Mycopathologia 162:155–166

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bogs C, Battilani P, Geisen R (2006) Development of a molecular detection and differentiation system for ochratoxin A producing Penicillium species and its application to analyse the occurrence of Penicillium nordicum in cured meats. Int J Food Microbiol 107:39–47

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown DW, Cheung F, Proctor RH, Butchko RAE, Zheng L, Lee Y, Utterback T, Smith S, Feldblyum T, Glenn AE, Plattner RD, Kendra DF, Town CD, Whitelaw CA (2005) Comparative analysis of 87,000 expressed sequence tags from the fumonisin-producing fungus Fusarium verticillioides. Fungal Genet Biol 42:848–861

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calvo AM, Bok J, Brooks W, Keller NP (2004) veA is required for toxin and sclerotial production in Aspergillus parasiticus. Appl Environ Microbiol 70:4733–4739

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caracuel Z, Roncero MIG, Espeso EA, González-Verdejo CI, García-Maceira FI, Di Pietro A (2003) The pH signalling transcription factor PacC controls virulence in the plant pathogen Fusarium oxysporum. Mol Microbiol 48:765–779

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chang PK, Matsushima K, Takahashi T, Yu J, Abe K, Bhatnagar D, Yuan GF, Koyama Y, Cleveland TE (2007) Understanding nonaflatoxigenicity of Aspergillus sojae: a windfall of aflatoxin biosynthesis research. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 76:977–984

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ciegler A, Fennel DI, Sansing GA, Detroy RW, Bennet GA (1973) Mycotoxin producing strains of Penicillium viridicatum: classification into subgroups. Appl Microbiol 26:271–278

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comi G, Orlic S, Redzepovic S, Urso R, Iacumin L (2004) Moulds isolated from Istrian dried ham at the pre-ripening and ripening level. Int J Food Microbiol 96:29–34

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dao HP, Mathieu F, Lebrihi A (2005) Two primer pairs to detect OTA producers by PCR method. Int J Food Microbiol 104:61–67

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diez P, Rodriguez-Saiz M, del la Fuente JL, Moreno MA, Barredo JL (2005) The nagA gene of Penicillium chrysogenum encoding ß-N-acetylglucosaminidase. FEMS Microbiol Lett 242:257–264

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dowzer CEA, Kelly JM (1991) Analysis of the creA gene, a regulator of carbon catabolite repression in Aspergillus nidulans. Mol Cell Biol 11:5701–5709

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunlap JC, Loros JJ (2006) How fungi keep time: circadian system in Neurospora and other fungi. Curr Opin Microbiol 9:579–587

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehrlich KC, Cotty PJ (2002) Variability in nitrogen regulation of aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus strains. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 60:174–178

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehrlich KC, Montalbano BG, Cary JW, Cotty PJ (2002) Promoter elements in the aflatoxin pathway polyketide synthase gene. Biochim Biophys Acta 1576:171–175

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frisvad JC, Elmholt S (2005) Ochratoxin A producing Penicillium verrucosum isolates from cereals reveal large AFLP fingerprinting variability. J Appl Microbiol 98:684–692

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frisvad J, Frank JM, Houbraken JAMP, Kuijpers AFA, Samson RA (2004) New ochratoxin A producing species of Aspergillus section Circumdati. Stud Mycol 50:23–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Frisvad JC, Andersen B, Thrane U (2008) The use of secondary metabolite profiling in chemotaxonomy of filamentous fungi. Mycol Res 112:231–240

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gaffoor I, Brown DW, Plattner R, Proctor RH, Qi W, Trail F (2005) Functional analysis of the polyketide synthase genes in the filamentous fungus Gibberella zeae (anamorph Fusarium graminearum). Eukaryot Cell 4:1926–1933

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gallo M, Katz E (1972) Regulation of secondary metabolite biosynthesis: catabolite repression of phenoxazinone synthase and actinomycin formation by glucose. J Bacteriol 109:659–667

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geisen R (2004) Molecular monitoring of environmental conditions influencing the induction of ochratoxin A biosynthetic genes in Penicillium nordicum. Mol Nutr Food Res 48:532–540

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geisen R, Mayer Z, Karolewiez A, Färber P (2004) Development of a real time PCR system for detection of Penicillium nordicum and for monitoring ochratoxin A production in foods by targeting the ochratoxin polyketide synthase gene. Syst Appl Microbiol 27:501–507

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geisen R, Schmidt-Heydt M, Karolewiez A (2006) A gene cluster of the ochratoxin A biosynthetic genes in Penicillium. Mycotoxin Res 22:134–141

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gillman IG, Yezek JM, Manderville RA (1998) Ochratoxin A acts as a photoactivateable DNA cleaving agent. Chem Commun 647–648

    Google Scholar 

  • Greene AV, Keller N, Haas H, Bell-Pedersen D (2003) A circadian oscillator in Aspergillus spp. regulates daily development and gene expression. Eukaryot Cell 2:231–237

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Häggblom P, Unestam T (1997) Blue light inhibits mycotoxin production and increases total lipids and pigmentation in Alternaria alternata. Appl Environ Microbiol 38:1074–1077

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris JP, Mantle PG (2001) Biosynthesis of ochratoxins by Aspergillus ochraceus. Phytochemistry 58:709–716

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huff WE, Hamilton PB (1979) Mycotoxins-their biosynthesis in fungi: Ochratoxins-metabolites of combined pathways. J Food Protect 42:815–820

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jayashree T, Subramanyam C (2000) Oxidative stress as a prerequisite for aflatoxin production by Aspergillus parasiticus. Free Radic Biol Med 29:981–985

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karolewiez A, Geisen R (2005) Cloning a part of the ochratoxin A biosynthetic gene cluster of Penicillium nordicum and characterization of the ochratoxin polyketide synthase gene. System Appl Microbiol 28:588–595

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keller NP, Nesbitt C, Sarr B, Phillips TD, Burow GB (1997) pH regulation of sterigmatocystin and aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus spp. Phytopathology 87:643–648

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim JH, Campbell BC, Yu J, Mahoney N, Chan KL, Molyneux RJ, Bhatnagar D, Cleveland TE (2005) Examination of fungal stress response genes using Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a model system: targeting genes affecting aflatoxin biosynthesis by Aspergillus flavus Link. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 67:807–815

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim JH, Campbell BC, Molyneux R, Mahoney N, Chan KL, Yu J, Wilkinson J, Cary J, Bhatnagar D, Cleveland TE (2006) Gene targets for fungal and mycotoxin control. Mycotoxin Res 22:3–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kimura M, Tokai T, Takahashi-Ando N, Ohsato S, Fujimura M (2007) Molecular and genetic studies of Fusarium trichothecene biosynthesis: pathways, genes, and evolution. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 71:2105–2123

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lakin-Thomas PL (2000) Circadian rhythms: new functions for old clock genes? Trends Genet 16:135–142

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lakin-Thomas PL, Brody S (2004) Circadian rhythms in microorganisms: new complexities. Annu Rev Microbiol 58:489–519

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen TO, Svendsen A, Smedsgaard J (2001) Biochemical characterization of ochratoxin A-producing strains of the genus Penicillium. Appl Environ Microbiol 67:3630–3635

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marzluf GA (1997) Genetic regulation of nitrogen metabolism in the fungi. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 61:17–32

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCormick SP, Alexander NJ, Trapp SE, Hohn TM (1999) Disruption of TRI101, the gene encoding trichothecene 3-O-Acetyltransferase, from Fusarium sporotrichioides. Appl Environ Microbiol 65:5252–5256

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muhitch MJ, McCormick SP, Alexander NJ, Hohn TM (2000) Transgenic expression of the TRI101 or PDR5 gene increases resistance of tobacco to the phytotoxic effects of the trichothecene 4,15-diacetoxyscirpenol. Plant Sci 157:201–207

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O'Callaghan J, Dobson ADW (2006) Phylogenetic analysis of polyketide synthase genes from Aspergillus ochraceus. Mycotoxin Res 22:125–133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O'Callaghan J, Caddick MX, Dobson ADW (2003) A polyketide synthase gene required for ochratoxin A biosynthesis in Aspergillus ochraceus. Microbiology 149:3485–3491

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O'Callaghan J, Stapleton PC, Dobson ADW (2006) Ochratoxin A biosynthetic genes in Aspergillus ochraceus are differentially resulted by pH and nutritional stimuli. Fungal Genet Biol 43:213–221

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ochiai N, Tokai T, Nishiuchi T, Takahashi-Ando N, Fujimura M, Kimura M (2007a) Involvement of the osmosensor histidine kinase and osmotic stress-activated protein kinases in the regulation of secondary metabolism in Fusarium graminearum. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 363:639–644

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ochiai N, Tokai T, Takahashi-Ando N, Fujimura M, Kimura M (2007b) Genetically engineered Fusarium as a tool to evaluate the effects of environmental factors on initiation of trichothecene biosynthesis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 275:53–61

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Okubara PA, Blechl AE, McCormick SP, Alexander NJ, Dill-Macky R, Hohn TM (2002) Engineering deoxynivalenol metabolism in wheat through the expression of a fungal trichothecene acetyltransferase gene. Theor Appl Genet 106:74–83

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orvehed M, Häggblom P, Söderhäll K (1988) Nitrogen Inhibition of Mycotoxin Production by Alternaria alternata. Appl Environ Microbiol 54:2361–2364

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O'Brian GR, Georgianna DR, Wilkinson JR, Yu J, Abbas HK, Bhatnagar D, Cleveland TE, Nierman W, Payne GA (2007) The effect of elevated temperature on gene transcription and aflatoxin biosynthesis. Mycologia 99:232–239

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perrone G, Varga J, Susca A, Frisvad JC, Stea G, Kocsube S, Toth B, Kozakiewicz Z, Samson RA (2008) Aspergillus uvarum sp. nov., an uniseriate black Aspergillus species isolated from grapes in Europe. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 58:1032–1039

    Google Scholar 

  • Petzinger E, Weidenbach A (2002) Mycotoxins in the food chain: the role of ochratoxins. Livestock Prod Sci 76:245–250

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pfohl-Leszkowicz A, Petkova-Bocharova T, Chernozemsky IN, Castegnaro M (2002) Balkan endemic nephropathy and associated urinary tract tumours: a review on aetiological causes and the potential role of mycotoxins. Food Addit Contam 19:282–302

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pitt JI (1987) Penicillium viridicatum, Penicillium verrucosum and production of ochratoxin A. Appl Environ Microbiol 53:266–269

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pohl-Leszkowicz A, Manderville RA (2007) Ochratoxin A: An overview on toxicity and carcinogenicity in animals and humans. Mol Nutr Food Res 51:61–99

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Price MS, Conners SB, Tachdjian S, Kelly RM, Payne GA (2005) Aflatoxin conducive and non-conducive growth conditions reveal new gene associations with aflatoxin production. Fungal Genet Biol 42:506–518

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Proctor RH, Brown DW, Plattner RD, Desjardins AE (2003) Co-expression of 15 contiguous genes delineates a fumonisin biosynthetic gene cluster in Gibberella moniliformis. Fungal Genet Biol 38:237–249

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Purschwitz J, Müller S, Kastner C, Schöser M, Haas H, Espeso EA, Atoui A, Calvo AM, Fischer R (2008) Functional and Physical Interaction of Blue- and Red Light Sensors in Aspergillus nidulans. Curr Biol 18:1–5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samson RA, Houbraken JAMP, Kuijpers AFA, Frank JM, Frisvad JC (2004) New ochratoxin A or sclerotium producing species in Aspergillus section Nigri. Stud Mycol 50:45–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Scherm B, Palomba M, Serra D, Marcello A, Migheli Q (2005) Detection of transcripts of the aflatoxin genes aflD, aflO, and aflP by reverse-transcription-polymerase chain reaction allows differentiation of aflatoxin-producing and non-producing isolates of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Int J Food Microbiol 98:201–210

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt-Heydt M, Baxter E, Geisen R, Magan N (2007) Physiological relationship between food preservatives, environmental factors, ochratoxin and otapksPV gene expression by Penicillium verrucosum. Int J Food Microbiol 119:277–283

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt-Heydt M, Magan N, Geisen R (2008) Stress induction of mycotoxin biosynthesis genes by abiotic factors. FEMS Microbiol Lett 284:142–149

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schuster E, Dunn-Coleman N, Frisvad JC (2002) On the safety of Aspergillus niger – a review. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 59:426–435

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Searcy JW, Davis ND, Diener UL (1969) Biosynthesis of ochratoxin A. Appl Microbiol 18:622–627

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Serra R, Cabanes FJ, Perrone G, Castellá G, Venancio A, Mulè G, Kozakiewicz Z (2006) Aspergillus ibericus: a new species of section Nigri isolated from grapes. Mycologia 98:295–306

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shimizu T, Kinoshita H, Ishihara S, Sakai K, Nagai S, Nihira T (2005) Polyketide synthase gene responsible for citrinin biosynthesis in Monascus purpureus. Appl Environ Microbiol 71:3453–3457

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skrinjar M, Dimic G (1992) Ochratoxigenicity of Aspergillus ochraceus group and Penicillium verrucosum var. cyclopium strains on various media. Acta Microbiol Hung 39:257–261

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stander MA, Bornscheuer UT, Henke E, Steyn PS (2000) Screening of Commercial Hydrolases for the Degradation of Ochratoxin A. J Agric Food Chem 48:5736–5739

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steyn PS (1993) Ochratoxin A: its chemistry, conformation and biosynthesis. In Creppy EE, Castegnaro M, Dirheimer G (eds) Human ochratoxicosis and its pathologies. Libbey Euro, Paris, pp 51–58

    Google Scholar 

  • Stinnett SM, Espeso EA, Cobeno L, Araújo-Bazán L, Calvo AM (2007) Aspergillus nidulans veA subcellular localization is dependent on the importin a carrier and on light. Mol Microbiol 63:242–255

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tominaga M, Lee YH, Hayashi R, Suzuki Y, Yamada O, Sakamoto K, Gotoh K, Akita O (2006) Molecular analysis of an inactive aflatoxin biosynthesis gene cluster in Aspergillus oryzae RIB strains. Appl Environ Microbiol 72:484–490

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tudzynski B (2005) Gibberellin biosynthesis in fungi: genes, enzymes, evolution, and impact on biotechnology. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 66:597–611

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tudzynski B, Liu S, Kelly JM (2000) Carbon catabolite repression in plant pathogenic fungi: isolation and characterization of the Gibberella fujikuroi and Botrytis cinerea creA genes. FEMS Microbiol Lett 184:9–15

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Merwe KJ, Steyn PS, Fourie L (1965) Ochratoxin A, a toxic metabolite produced by Aspergillus ochraceus Wilh. Nature 205:1112–1113

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Varga J, Kevei É, Rinyu E, Teren J, Kozakiewicz Z (1996) Ochratoxin production by Aspergillus species. Appl Environ Microbiol 62:4461–4464

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Varga J, Kozakiewicz Z (2006) Ochratoxin A in grapes and grape-derived products. Trends Food Sci Technol 17:72–81

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Varga J, Rigó K, Téren J (2000) Degradation of ochratoxin A by Aspergillus species. Int J Food Microbiol 59:1–7

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • von Witsch H, Wagner F (1955) Beobachtungen über den Einfluß des Lichtes auf Mycel- und Conidienbildung bei Alternaria brassicae var. dauci. Arch Microbiol 22:307–312

    Google Scholar 

  • Wei R-D, Strong FM, Smalley EB (1971) Incorporation of Chlorine-36 into Ochratoxin A. Appl Microbiol 22:276–277

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yu J, Keller N (2005) Regulation of secondary metabolism in filamentous fungi. Annu Rev Phytopathol 43:437–458

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yu J, Bhatnagar D, Cleveland TE (2004) Completed sequence of aflatoxin pathway gene cluster in Aspergillus parasiticus. FEBS Lett 564:126–130

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Max Rubner Institute, Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, Haid-und-Neu-Strasse 9, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany

    Rolf Geisen & Markus Schmidt-Heydt

Authors
  1. Rolf Geisen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Markus Schmidt-Heydt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rolf Geisen .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Inst. Biotechnologie und, TU Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schrödinger-Str. 56, Kaiserslautern, 67663, Germany

    Timm Anke

  2. MIP Pharma GmbH, Mühlstr. 50, St.Ingbert, 66386, Germany

    Daniela Weber

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Geisen, R., Schmidt-Heydt, M. (2009). Physiological and Molecular Aspects of Ochratoxin A Biosynthesis. In: Anke, T., Weber, D. (eds) Physiology and Genetics. The Mycota, vol 15. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-00286-1_17

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation