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Evolutionary Psychology in the Business Sciences pp 135–163Cite as

Caveman Executive Leadership: Evolved Leadership Preferences and Biological Sex

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Abstract

There is increasing recognition that human behavior in general, and business behavior in particular, is subject to social and biological effects. This research investigates the well-known but unsatisfactorily explained advantage that males have over females in obtaining executive leadership. We argue that environmental-cultural explanations are incomplete and propose an explanation that adds to the emerging evidence that behavior is subject to evolutionary effects. More specifically, we take the perspective of evolutionary psychology in this research. The explanation presented here is grounded in the evolutionary theory of natural selection such that a psychological adaptation adaptation for a preference for male leaders evolved to promote individual survivability in the violent ancestral history of humans. We present convergent interdisciplinary findings as well as supporting evidence from three studies with distinct research designs, domains, and perspectives of analysis to strengthen the validity of our argument. In all, this research offers a more complete theoretical explanation for male predominance in executive leadership and provides an additional theoretical approach to the investigation of modern biases that have been costly to the business community.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The ten least masculine countries according to Hofstede’s cultural dimension of masculinity, listed in order of decreasing masculinity, are: Thailand, Portugal, Estonia, Chile, Finland, Costa Rica, Denmark, The Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden.

  2. 2.

    The 11 GLOBE societies with the least male dominance in practice, listed in order of decreasing male dominance, are: Singapore, Canada, Albania, Sweden, Kazakhstan, Namibia, Denmark, Slovenia, Poland, Russia, and Hungary. We noted 11 societies because the countries ranked 10th and 11th on the list had identical scores. Sweden and Denmark are the only two countries that appear on both the Hofstede and GLOBE lists.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Political Science, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, 79409, TX, USA

    Gregg R. Murray

  2. Rawls College of Business, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, 79409, TX, USA

    Susan M. Murray

Authors
  1. Gregg R. Murray
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  2. Susan M. Murray
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Correspondence to Gregg R. Murray .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. John Molson School of Business, Concordia University, De Maisonneuve Blvd. W. 1455, Montreal, H3G 1M8, Québec, Canada

    Gad Saad

Appendices

Appendix A: Support of Presidential Candidate Vignette Study (Study 1)

Senator Joan [John] Harper has been selected by her [his] party to run for president of the United States. Sen. Harper has served in the US Senate for two terms. Like most national politicians, the senator has a long list of political achievements. She [He] has been the chair of the Senate Armed Services committee for four years, is credited with leading congressional negotiations over a major tax reform bill, and sponsored legislation to improve the financing of public education. Harper is usually among the moderate members of the Senate. For example, the senator recently supported bills designed to reduce the emission of air pollutants by factories and to extend tax credits given to small businesses, and opposed a bill that would have made it easier for people to get military-style assault weapons. Before being elected to the US Senate, Harper served four terms in the US House of Representatives and practiced law for several years. Supporters and opponents agree that Harper is intelligent and articulate with proven leadership skills. The senator has been married for 32 years and has two adult children.

Respected experts say that the country’s economy is strong and growing [weak and declining]. The opposition party has not yet selected its nominee to run against Harper, but the two front runners are ideologically different from the senator, with one being slightly more liberal than the moderate Harper and the other being slightly more conservative.

Instrument Item 5. How likely or unlikely would you be to support Joan [John] Harper for president in the upcoming election?

Very Unlikely (1) to Very Likely (7)

Appendix B: Chief Executive Officer Description Task (Study 2)

Task 1. You have started your career, and the company you work for is growing and expects continued profitability [is declining and fears bankruptcy] in the near future. A new CEO (chief executive officer) will be taking over next month. Create in your mind the ideal CEO of this company. This should not be a real person but should be a fictitious person that has all the characteristics you want in the perfect CEO of your company. What are this person’s professional qualities and characteristics? What are this person’s personal qualities and characteristics?

Write down as many details as possible that come to mind about this person. Take about half a minute to complete this description.

Task 2. Thinking still about your career and the successful [failing] company you work for, create in your mind the typical employee of this company. This should not be a real person but should be a fictitious person that has all the characteristics of the average employee of your company. What are this person’s professional qualities and characteristics? What are this person’s personal qualities and characteristics?

Write down as many details as possible that come to mind about this person. Take about half a minute to complete this description.

Task 3. Think about the typical employee meeting your ideal CEO of your successful [failing] company. To give us as complete a description as possible, draw a picture of that meeting in the space below. Both individuals should be standing in your picture. Include any details that are important to your image of this meeting. Clearly label the employee and CEO in the picture.

Artistic ability does not matter. Stick figures are fine if you run short of time and/or artistic ability. Take about one minute to complete this drawing.

Instrument Item 6: What is the gender of the CEO you described?

a. Female  b. Male

a. Female

b. Male

Measurement in Drawing Studies (Study 2 and 3)

We expect that subjects are more likely to draw leaders that are larger than followers under conditions of threat. The primary measure is the relative difference in vertical size of the leader and follower in the “meeting” drawing. We define “larger” as the vertical distance between the highest and lowest points of each figure, with the distance being measured as a vertical line that is at a 90° angle to the ground. The highest point of a figure includes the top of the head in simple figures but includes extensions such as hair, hats, and bows in more complex figures. Drawings in which the difference between the citizen and leader is less than 1 mm are coded as no difference. Drawings in which both figures are not standing or in which the difference is incomprehensible (e.g., figures are sitting around a table or dismembered or only one figure was drawn) are disqualified as non-responsive.

Appendix C: National Leader Description Task (Study 3)

Task 1. Imagine that your country is experiencing a time of war [peace]. Create in your mind the ideal national leader of your country, such as a president or prime minister, during a time of war [peace]. This should not be a real person but should be a fictitious person that has all the characteristics you would want in the perfect leader of your country. What are this person’s personal qualities and characteristics? What are this person’s political qualities and characteristics?

Write down as many details as possible that come to mind about this person.

Task 2. Thinking still about your ideal national leader during a time of war [peace], draw a picture of that person on this sheet of paper. The national leader should be standing in your picture. Include any details that are important to your image of this person.

Artistic ability does not matter. Stick figures are fine if you run short of time and/or artistic ability.

Task 3. Create in your mind the typical citizen from your country during a time of war [peace]. This should not be a real person but should be a fictitious person that has all the characteristics of the average citizen in your country. What are this person’s personal qualities and characteristics? What are this person’s political qualities and characteristics?

Write down as many details as possible that come to mind about this person.

Task 4. Thinking still about the typical citizen during a time of war [peace], draw a picture of that person on this sheet of paper. The citizen should be standing in your picture. Include any details that are important to your image of this person.

Artistic ability does not matter. Stick figures are fine if you run short of time and/or artistic ability.

Task 5. Think about the typical citizen meeting your ideal national leader during a time of war [peace]. Write down as many details as possible that come to mind about this meeting.

Task 6. Thinking still about the typical citizen meeting your ideal national leader during a time of war [peace], draw a picture of that meeting on this sheet of paper. Both individuals should be standing in your picture. Include any details that are important to your image of this meeting. Clearly label the citizen and national leader in the picture.

Artistic ability does not matter. Stick figures are fine if you run short of time and/or artistic ability.

Instrument item 9. What is the gender of the national leader you described?

a. Female  b. Male

a. Female

b. Male

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Murray, G.R., Murray, S.M. (2011). Caveman Executive Leadership: Evolved Leadership Preferences and Biological Sex. In: Saad, G. (eds) Evolutionary Psychology in the Business Sciences. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-92784-6_6

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